North Devon and Torridge - Landscape Character Assessment Update

2.1 This Chapter gives an overview of the main phases of physical and cultural evolution which have shaped the landscape

Geological and physical evolution

Geology and landform

2.2 The two districts are underlain by a complex geology that has strongly shaped and influenced the character of the landscape over hundreds of millions of years. See Figure 2.1.

2.3 The area displays a clear divide in its underlying rocks - a geological boundary roughly follows the Taw-Torridge Estuary, above which lie the resistant Devonian slates and sandstones which form the high land of Exmoor and the North Devon Downs [See reference 2]. The northern extent of the wide, rounded ridges of the high downland is marked by a broad ridgeline running parallel to the coast. This connects all the long 'fingers' of downland running south, divided by steep wooded valleys and coastal combes. The Devonian rocks are displayed in a distinctive jagged coastline of folded strata and pronounced western headlands of more resistant Pickwell Down sandstone. These headlands have been landmarks for centuries; Morte Point being especially dreaded by mariners as a notorious wrecking ground.

Figure ‎2.1: Geology of the two Districts

2.4 To the south of the estuary, spanning both North Devon and Torridge districts, are younger and softer Carboniferous 'Culm Measures', comprising crushed and folded shales and sandstones originally laid down as sediments in a vast sea between 280 and 395 million years ago. These extend to cover a significant portion of Devon from the Exe Valley westwards to the Atlantic seaboard. The area is frequently dissected by small streams and rivers resulting in a rolling landform characterised by broad sandstone ridges separated by shale valleys. The high sandstone ridges are some of the most exposed land in the districts - for example, the farmland around Rackenford reaches some 280 metres above sea level. An anomaly in the typical Culm landform is the thin band of limestone stretching from Swimbridge towards South Molton. This creates a series of distinctive whaleback chert ridges, including Codden Hill, affording panoramic views across the surrounding landscapes (Figure 2.2).

Figure ‎2.2: Panoramic views from Codden Hill

2.5 The coastline framing Torridge District showcases steeply inclined strata formed through considerable faulting and folding during periods of massive uplift at the end of the Carboniferous period, some 300 million years ago (the 'Variscan Orogeny'). One particular fault has exposed a small amount of older Permian red sandstone at Portledge on the Clovelly coast. This gives the cliffs an isolated splash of colour against the sombre greys and browns of the neighbouring Carboniferous rocks. The shaping and folding of the rocks by the massive earth movements at this time are dramatically illustrated in the cliffs and rocky foreshore along the Hartland coast, including at Hartland Quay.

2.6 Following the uplift of the landscape at the end of the Carboniferous period, the newly revealed land emerged into a sub-tropical arid climate, where storms swept large amounts of sediment into valleys and fringing desert plains. This gave rise to the local deposits of breccia and breccio-conglomerate now seen east of Clovelly. The strata were further displaced by a swarm of minor, and some major faults. Of most significance was the Sticklepath Fault, which occurred during the Tertiary Period, and runs north-west to south-east from Bideford Bay to Torbay in South Devon. This caused local subsidence to create the Petrockstowe Basin in Torridge District. Sand, clay and lignite accumulated in the beds of the rivers and lakes within the basin, forming the Ball Clay deposits found and worked around Petrockstowe and Meeth.

2.7 Devon did not experience the full effects of the Ice Age in the subsequent Quaternary period. The south-moving ice sheet extended no further than the cliffs of Bideford Bay. Increased river erosion during this period, however, gradually created much of the present landform. The rises in sea level that occurred with the melting of the ice sheets also caused some river valleys to be drowned by the sea, including the Taw-Torridge Estuary which remains a major feature of today's landscape.

2.8 The scenery changes dramatically at the mouth of the estuary, where the extensive dune systems of Braunton Burrows to the north (see Figure 2.1) and the smaller Northam Burrows to the south stretch low and wide between enclosing headlands. These features were largely the product of rising post-glacial sea levels which deposited estuarine clays and accumulations of marine sand. Onshore winds continue to feed the dune systems with sand blown from the wide beach at Saunton Sands.

2.9 Fronting Northam Burrows is an extensive pebble ridge, the continuation of a storm beach which fringes the cliff-foot from Clovelly eastwards. Material eroded from these cliffs enters the wave zone, becoming rounded into pebbles (or 'cobbles') which are lifted by waves and transported eastward by littoral drift. A relatively recent natural feature, in effect a 'shingle spit', the pebble ridge has been subject to considerable modification, and is slowly retreating landward. This has led to the local custom of 'potwalloping'. Households with a hearth ("pot") in the parish of Northam gather annually to lob ("wallop") cobbles back into breaches formed by the winter storms.

2.10 In the millennia since the last Ice Age, rising sea levels and exposure to Atlantic storm waves have produced classic examples of coastal erosion and deposition, including tall, rugged cliffs exposing wave-cut platforms, raised beaches, headlands, bays, caves, arches and stacks. Rising sea levels and consequent coastal retreat have also created hanging valleys where streams have been truncated to form cascading waterfalls falling down to beaches below, including Wargery Water and the Millford Water on the Hartland peninsula.

Figure ‎2.3: The rugged Hartland Coast at Blackpool Mill © Neville Stanikk, courtesy of the North Devon Coast AONB

2.11 To the north-west of the North Devon coast lies Lundy Island, sitting in the Bristol Channel some 23 miles west of Ilfracombe and 11 miles from Hartland Point. The island is very distinct from the geology of the rest of the districts, formed from a plateau of Tertiary granite thought to be left as a legacy from an ancient volcano. In fact, the granite rock of the island is believed to represent the southern-most example of igneous rocks associated with the initial formation of the North Atlantic Ocean around 60 million years ago.

2.12 The south-eastern corner of Lundy is all that remains of the original slates that formed over 100 million years earlier - similar to the Morte slates of North Devon from the Upper Devonian period. A vertical intrusion (dyke) of igneous rock forms a large protective face to slates remaining behind the island's Landing Beach, preventing the further erosion of these older rocks. There is evidence in the form of rouches moutonées, erratics and U-shaped valleys that, unlike mainland Devon, an ice sheet passed over Lundy during the last Ice Age.

Figure ‎2.4: Granite rock formations on Lundy's west coast

Drainage

2.13 This text summarises the main drainage patterns of Torridge and North Devon, starting with Torridge District (see Figure 2.6).

2.14 The River Taw flows from its source on Dartmoor across North Devon and into parts of Torridge District on its course to meet the River Torridge at the Taw-Torridge Estuary. The district is also drained by the upper courses of the Tamar and the full length of the Torridge River - both of which rise on high ground just inland of Hartland Point.

2.15 The watershed between the Torridge and the Tamar, one mile east of Woolley Moor, was immortalised in Turner's painting shown in Figure 2.5 below.

2.16 From its source near the Hartland coast, the River Torridge flows south-east where it joins the River Waldon near Bradford. It then swings north and begins to flow towards the estuary at Bideford, and at Appledore it joins with the River Taw to feed into the Taw-Torridge Estuary. Tributaries of the river include the River Mere which joins south of Beaford, and the River Yeo which meets the river two kilometres south of Bideford.

2.17 The upper courses of the River Tamar are today dominated by two reservoirs (the Upper and Lower Tamar Lakes). As the river drains southwards on its course to meet the sea at Plymouth, it forms the county boundary with Cornwall. Several tributaries join from within the district, including the Rivers Deer, Claw, Carey and Wolf. The Wolf is dammed by another reservoir - Roadford Lake - which straddles the south-eastern boundary of the district and into West Devon.

Figure ‎2.5: An engraving of Turner's c1813 watercolour Source of the Tamar and Torridge. Photo: Tate.

Figure ‎2.6: Drainage

2.18 Across in North Devon District, the high land of Exmoor, like Dartmoor, attracts high precipitation levels, serving as a more immediate source of the district's rivers. These drain south and west from the moorland core, including the Bray and Mole (both tributaries of the River Yeo and, in their lower courses, the Taw). The elevated North Devon Downs, which cover much of the district west of Exmoor, are also dissected by steep wooded valleys containing minor rivers and streams which generally flow southwards to meet the Taw/Torridge estuary.

2.19 The south-western portion of the district, including the wet 'moors' lying above the slow-draining shales, mudstones and sandstones of the Culm Measures series, are crossed by numerous streams feeding into the Mole and Little Dart rivers - which are, in turn, tributaries of the River Taw, the main river of North Devon. Along with the River Torridge, the Taw is famously associated with Henry Williamson's 1927 novel Tarka the Otter. The Tarka Trail, which follows an old railway line along the two rivers, is also named after the otter depicted in Williamson's book.

2.20 The steep coastal plateaux and cliffs framing both districts are characterised by short streams cutting combes through the landscape on their route to the sea, sometimes forming hanging valleys and spectacular watercourses as they leave the land.

Soils and land use

2.21 The Culm Measures which underlie a large proportion of the landscape consist of dark shales and sandstone ridges, the former weathering into cold, heavy and badly drained soils and the latter into shallow, stony and agriculturally poor soils. Waterlogged gley and brown earth and soils give rise to a predominantly pastoral landscape supporting internationally important tracts of biodiversity-rich Culm grasslands and mires left unimproved for agriculture (see paragraph 2.29). The agriculturally poor nature of land within the Culm Measures is also likely to have had an influence over its choice for the location of large blocks of mixed and coniferous plantations.

Figure ‎2.7: Traditional cropping methods near South Molton

2.22 North of the geological divide marked by the Taw-Torridge Estuary, the free-draining and more fertile soils sitting above the Devonian slates and sandstones support a combination of arable and pasture (Figure 2.7), as well as areas of traditional open sheep pasture (downland) towards the west coast.

2.23 Across the two districts the slopes of the main river valleys and their tributaries are sheltered and more freely drained, producing the most fertile soils of the area supporting rich farmland and traditional orchards.

2.24 Figure 2.8 shows the Agricultural Land Classification of the two districts, which indicates how agriculturally productive different areas are.

Climate

2.25 The climate of the two districts, set within the context of the wider South West peninsula, affects the landscape through exposure, rainfall and temperature. In turn these influence the area's characteristic vegetation cover, soil quality and settlement patterns. Nowhere on the peninsula is the sea more than 25 miles away, resulting in a maritime climate characterised by milder winters and cooler summers than elsewhere in the UK. The predominant westerly winds also bring high rainfall (approximately 1,000 millimetres a year), generally favouring permanent pasture for livestock farming and supporting favourable conditions for the development of the area's distinctive Culm grasslands.

Figure ‎2.8: Agricultural land classification

2.26 The long coastline framing the two districts is greatly influenced by the prevailing weather conditions. The west-facing coast between Hartland Point and the Cornish border catches the full brunt of the Atlantic weather. Long exposure to salt-laden winds has produced a wild and windswept quality contrasting markedly with the adjacent Clovelly coastline which is more sheltered. Such degrees of exposure have in turn influenced the natural vegetation cover found along the coast. Trees are rare; those which do survive are stunted and pruned by the strong winds into distinctive forms (Figure 2.9). The coastal woodlands backing the more sheltered Bideford Bay (particularly around Clovelly) are therefore particularly important; internationally protected as part of a wider Special Area of Conservation (SAC).

Figure ‎2.9: Exposed pines on the North Devon coast

2.27 The climate of the area (and Devon more widely) has been an important influence in determining farming types and practices along with the location of settlement and, over the last two centuries, the ever-growing popularity of the area for tourism.

Semi-natural habitats

2.28 The unique combination of climate, soils, topography, and human interaction (the latter described in the following section) has produced a diverse range of semi-natural habitats across the two districts, supporting a rich variety of plants and animals. Reflecting the nature conservation importance of the landscape's semi-natural habitats are 58 Sites of Special Scientific Interest within the two districts covering nearly 4,000 hectares, along with six Special Areas of Conservation (wholly or partly within) and a strong network of County Wildlife Sites. See Figure 2.11.

2.29 Particularly associated with the area are the Culm grasslands which are found scattered across the Hartland Peninsula and the Bideford Bay Coast, and represented more extensively across the wet inland moors and valley bottoms of both districts (see Figure 2.10). Most of the sites fall within the Culm Grasslands Special Area of Conservation (SAC), representing the remains of what was once a much larger network. The habitat is characterised by tussocks of Purple Moor Grass, interspersed with orchids, rushes, heath, mosses and other rare plants. This rich flora supports a wide range of insects including grasshoppers and butterflies, including the Marsh Fritillary which is classified as 'vulnerable' in Europe.

Figure ‎2.10: Cotton grass on Bursdon Moor © Neville Stanikk, courtesy of the North Devon Coast AONB

2.30 At some sites, such as Quoditch Moor Nature Reserve, some 28 species of butterfly have been recorded. Insects in turn attract birds including the barn owl and curlew, as well as mammals including the dormouse and several species of bat.

2.31 Other habitats valued within the farmland landscape are the many hundreds of miles of hedgerows and distinctive species-rich Devon hedge-banks which define the field patterns across the countryside. These support an abundance of wildlife, particularly as pasture and arable farming have intensified over recent decades, squeezing wildlife into smaller and smaller refuges. Woodlands cloaking valley sides, much ancient and oak-dominated, along with smaller farm woods and copses scattered throughout also provide important havens for wildlife. The streams and rivers themselves are highly valued for nature conservation - the clean, fast flowing water providing a stronghold for the otter, a UK Priority Species.

2.32 Along the coast are diverse mosaics of maritime grassland, heathland and scrub, combined with sea cliffs, rocky shores, estuarine salt marsh and sand dunes. These form a complex, and in many parts, internationally valuable coastal ecosystem within the North Devon Biosphere Reserve.

Figure ‎2.11: Biodiversity designations

Figure ‎2.12: Western oak woodland extending to the cliff line at Mouthmill © North Devon Coast AONB

2.33 Western oak woodland along the Clovelly coast and within the coastal combes represents a significant and extensive wildlife resource, much of which comprises ancient semi-natural woodland. The quality of the air, unpolluted by industrial emissions and constantly freshened by Atlantic westerlies, is a particular asset, indicated by the proliferation and variety of lichens on rocks and within broadleaved woodlands, scrub and parklands. Straggling clumps of 'Sausage lichen' along the country lanes of the Hartland Peninsula are an example of how a locally indigenous species can contribute to the local landscape character. On Lundy Island, the endemic Lundy Cabbage, found nowhere else in the world, contributes to the distinctive local character and unique ecosystem of the island.

Figure ‎2.13: The endemic Lundy cabbage

Cultural and historic evolution

2.34 The physical processes that have shaped the landscape of the two districts have also had an indirect but significant influence on the character of the landscape once humans appeared on the scene. Mining resources, the presence of running water for power, building materials, along with the influence of landform on shelter, accessible transport routes and defensible positions, all played a part in forming the landscape's settlement pattern and the character of many of today's towns and villages. The rich cultural heritage is reflected in a number of national designations, including 374 Scheduled Monuments, 4,298 Listed Buildings, one Designated Wreck (off Lundy) and seven Historic England registered Parks and Gardens (see Figure 2.14). In total, the districts' Historic Environment Record lists some 14,000 sites of archaeological and historic interest, from Palaeolithic hand axes to Cold War bunkers; from single spot finds to landscape scale features such as Braunton Great Field.

Figure ‎2.14: Heritage designations

The Mesolithic and Neolithic Periods (8,000-2,500 BC)

2.35 By Mesolithic times, as the climate warmed up after the last Ice Age, it is likely that the landscape was covered in extensive woodland. Man's impact on the landscape would have been very minimal, with hunter-gatherers beginning to clear the forests of oak, hazel, elm and lime to make clearings for herding larger mammals. Finds of Mesolithic flint tools indicate this activity, mostly along the coast and on Lundy. Neolithic flints are more widespread, with particular concentrations around Georgeham and Abbotsham. It is believed from evidence from the uplands (particularly Dartmoor), that the methods of woodland clearance on higher ground led to the subsequent development of bog and heathland habitats.

2.36 The early Neolithic period witnessed the beginnings of agricultural cultivation, as well as the construction of settlements and trading posts. It is thought that the landscape at this time would have been divided into wild wood, cultivated and grazed land, with open moor remaining on higher ground over 300 metres above sea level. There are a few examples of late Neolithic / early Bronze Age communal/ritual monuments such as standing stones, stone rows and settings in clearances, largely confined to the uplands.

2.37 The coastline at this time would have extended further out than its present extent, with the sea level some 37 metres lower than today. Many archaeological remains which were situated on the coastal margins during this period have therefore been buried under coastal sediments or lost to the sea, with exceptions including a submerged stone row at Yelland.

The Bronze and Iron Ages (1,500 BC to 43 AD)

2.38 The Bronze Age marks the start of any significant visual evidence of human activity in the landscape, with a number of the area's high ridges displaying a scattering of Bronze Age tumuli, barrows and small enclosures, including on Welsford and Bursdon Moors and along the high ridge of the North Devon Downs. Bronze Age barrows also feature in the landscape between the headwaters of the rivers Torridge and Lydeland, north of Pancrasweek, as well as on the high moorland north of Ashwater and between the Upper Torridge and the Upper Taw. It is thought that, as well as burials, the barrows may have served additional functions in marking prehistoric ridgeway routes or territorial boundaries. The choice of coastal locations for some barrows, such as Embury Beacon and Gallantry Bower, might have had some ritual significance.

2.39 Other components of the prehistoric landscape include standing stones at Lee and a number of major barrow cemeteries. The Iron Age saw the construction of a number of hill forts and defensive enclosures occupying prominent coastal and valley positions. Embury Beacon is one such example on the Hartland Coast, comprising the eroding remains of a dramatic promontory fort. Other enclosures include Hillsborough Hillfort (east of Ilfracombe - see Figure 2.15) and Clovelly Dykes , the former occupying a commanding position looking out to sea and along the North Devon coast. Inland, a number of valleys are overlooked by defensive forts, including Castle Hill settlement above the Torridge, and Brighley Barton Camp above the Taw - both Scheduled Monuments.

Figure ‎2.15: Hillsborough hillfort which rises above Ilfracombe

2.40 Lundy Island is also incredibly rich in remains from the Bronze and Iron Ages, including relic huts (their granite circular walls - hut circles) and Iron Age field enclosures. It is thought that the island's use as a seasonal fishing base in the late Mesolithic period developed into a permanently inhabited landscape by the Bronze Age, used by early farmers for sheep grazing, hunting sea birds, fishing and egg collecting.

2.41 Across the district is a wider distribution of later prehistoric enclosed farmsteads surviving as earthworks and also visible as archaeological cropmarks. Concentrations of the latter are found in the hinterland of the Torridge estuary and around South Molton. It is possible that a more wooded area survived into the Romano-British period in the West Devon/North Devon/Mid Devon borderlands - signified by 'Nymet' place-names.

The Romano-British Period and the Dark Ages (43 AD - 700 AD)

2.42 Most historians believe that the Roman Invasion failed to make any significant marks on the landscape of the two districts, with Exeter very much a frontier town for their occupation. However, recent discoveries include Roman iron smelting works at Brayford and coastal hillcamps at Martinhoe and Countisbury, both in Exmoor National Park. The Roman iron smelting industry, with its established coppiced woodland system, suggests that this activity was already happening in the earlier Iron Age; the original woods having been cleared centuries before.

2.43 During this time farming probably developed to the stage when unenclosed open field systems began to evolve around homesteads, but the landscape remained thinly populated.

2.44 Towards the end of the Roman occupation, it is widely believed that the influence of the Celtic church was strong in the area. This was felt particularly along the North Devon coast, as missionary saints travelled across the sea from Ireland and South Wales to preach the Christian faith. The Taw-Torridge estuary must have provided a natural point of entry for the Saints, breaking the almost continuous sequence of treacherous cliffs to either side. Chapels and churches located along the coast bear the names of these Celtic Saints, including St. Elen (on Lundy and at Croyde) and St. Nectan (at Hartland and Welcombe) - both children of St. Brechan and therefore closely associated. To reinforce this bond, it is believed that the chapels on such sites were located within sight of each other, perhaps creating a web of inter-visibility reaching across to Wales. 'Berry' settlement names such as Blegberry and Titchberry may come from the defensive circuits located around 'Dark Age' native British sites.

The Saxon and Medieval Periods (700 - 1540)

2.45 While the date and speed of the Saxon Conquest of this part of Devon is uncertain, it is agreed that the takeover was complete by the turn of the eighth century, with only a few Native British place-names surviving. The Saxons had a significant influence on the landscape. As well as the establishment of the scattered pattern of hamlets and isolated farmsteads still characteristically associated with the rural landscape, nucleated villages developed, for example at Bideford, Braunton, Pilton and Northam - around which extensive open field systems were laid out.

2.46 Narrow winding lanes linked the new settlements and small irregular fields were enclosed by tall earth banks planted with hedges. Parishes were established or adopted from their Native British predecessors, with small stone churches and cottages clustered in sheltered hollows. Colonisation pushed more land into cultivation with woodland felled, heathlands ploughed, and waterlogged land drained. The open field systems surrounding some villages were enclosed into furlong strips with curving boundaries; these origins clearly visible in the modern landscape (e.g. around Croyde and Combe Martin). The fertile valleys of the Taw and Torridge rivers inland were favoured over the heavy or stony soils found along the coast.

2.47 Despite four centuries of widespread colonisation and occupation of the landscape by the Saxons, Hoskins (1954) observes that the population of Devon as a whole was still no larger than modern-day Exeter. There was little or no mining or industry (apart from small household ventures such as pottery or cloth-making) and trade was negligible; large parts of the landscape still lay 'waste' in moorland, woodland, heath and marsh.

2.48 The Norman Conquest and the subsequent two centuries saw immense changes to the Devon landscape, a period which Hoskins refers to as 'the great age of colonisation'. In the rural areas, thousands of farms came into existence, combined with a rapid spread of cultivated land enclosed within intricate fields. The enclosure and cultivation of areas of moorland, woodland, heath and riverside marshes 'was the work of free peasants, armed with a charter from the lord of the manor which granted them a piece of territory within specified boundaries' (Hoskins, 1954). Hoskins goes on to say that this activity:

'....coloured much of the political and social history of the county down to the 19th century, and even to the present day.'

2.49 A significant religious revival during this period saw parish churches built in stone and the establishment of religious houses such as Hartland Abbey (see Figure 2.16). The abbeys and their successor estates also drove the process of agricultural improvement - creating larger fields with straightened boundaries. They also introduced new land uses such as rabbit warrens along the coast, often fossilising more marginal land.

Figure ‎2.16: The Grade I listed Hartland Abbey

2.50 Today, little remains of churches from this period, except some Norman fonts and doorways, as much was rebuilt in the 14th and 15th centuries. It also marked the beginnings of commercial trade and industry, such as the cloth industry which spurred on the development of towns like South Molton. Overseas trade burgeoned from Barnstaple (the third largest town in Devon at the time) and estuary ports such as Bideford, where great ships were built to export goods such as cloth from the local mill towns and tin from Dartmoor.

2.51 When the Black Death struck in 1348, a sharp decline in the rural population led to the abandonment of many farmsteads and hamlets, and a period of economic recession ensued. In the 14th century, Devon began to recover relatively quickly from the losses of the plague - heralding a period of rebuilding and re-population of rural areas. Most of the Devon churches as they stand now date from the 14th and 15th century, stone bridges were constructed over the larger rivers and manor houses were built in the countryside, many on the wealth of lawyers that settled in the county.

The Late and Post-Medieval Period (16th to early 19th Centuries)

2.52 By the 17th century new enclosure acts were encouraging the enclosure of even the wettest and highest Culm ridges and areas of Exmoor, building on what was started before the Plague. In comparison with other English counties Devon still retained a large percentage of rough grazing and moorland. Enclosure Acts awarded during this period were also fewer than in many other parts of England (most coming in during the later 19th century), a key reason why Devon is celebrated today as a strongly medieval landscape.

2.53 The later medieval period saw the prosperity of farming blossom, sustaining the population of the thriving nearby towns and ports with meat, cider and grain, as well as feeding the rural population. Soil fertility was improved and yields increased through the addition of lime, seaweed and 'night-soil' to sweeten the soil and make it less acidic.

2.54 Following Acts of Parliament in the 18th and 19th centuries, remaining areas of downland, moorland and commons were enclosed into large fields with straight boundaries, as can be seen across parts of Welsford Moor in Hartland, and Pickwell Downs near Woolacombe. Braunton Marsh was also reclaimed from the sea as rich, fertile grazing land in the early 19th century. The Torrington Canal and parts of the Bude Canal were also developed at this time to transport in supplies such as sand, lime and fuel. They were also used as key export routes for the agricultural products produced from the land.

2.55 Most farms probably had their own orchard, with cider making first recorded in the 13th century. Woodlands were managed for firewood, tanning, charcoal and timber, with cattle being excluded by the stock-proof tall Devon banks. Distinct breeds of cattle, sheep, pigs and ponies were familiar, and the North Devon Red cattle (Ruby Reds) are still much favoured today.

2.56 Farm buildings became more specialised, with cider-making, dairying and water-mills to grind corn. The distinctive corn barn, with its threshing and winnowing doors, and linhays, the two-storey open-fronted cow sheds (see Figure 2.17), were typical of this period, and many survive today. Farm sizes became larger, with country estates flourishing along with the wealth of the country gentlemen. Designed landscapes of parks and plantations also developed during this time, including the Castle Hill Estate on the banks of the River Bray.

Figure ‎2.17: Traditional linhay in North Devon

2.57 The creation of 'Boroughs' and administrative areas to collect tithes, along with the increasing population and agricultural surpluses all contributed to the further growth of population centres, including South Molton, the prosperous boroughs of Ilfracombe and Combe Martin and the ports of Barnstaple and Bideford. The building industry, with all its auxiliary crafts and trades from quarrying to carpentry, is likely to have rivalled the cloth and fishing industries in terms of economic contribution during this renaissance period.

2.58 Silver and lead mining accelerated as an important industry at Combe Martin, worked at intervals up until 1875 from its earlier medieval origins. Today, the legacy of the tall smelting chimneys remains as landmarks on the hillside above the town. Lime was also worked from outcrops in North Devon and from the chert ridge of the Codden Hills, with small quarries and lime kilns remaining in the modern landscape. During this period, limestone and coal was also imported from South Wales to every convenient anchorage along the coast (e.g. Mouth Mill and Bucks Mills on the Clovelly coast).

2.59 Mining became an increasingly significant industry, as did the wool / cloth trade locally - taking advantage of the abundant water power. As well as silver and lead mining around Combe Martin, iron ores were worked from the downland river valleys (e.g. the Caen and Bradiford Water); and iron and copper from the southern slopes of Exmoor - continuing what the Romans started.

2.60 Along the coast, the threat of pirate raids during this time was very real. This is demonstrated at Blegberry in Hartland where the ancient farmstead is surrounded by rampart walls built as a defence against such attacks in 1606. The treacherous seas and coastlines of North Devon have themselves proved deadly to seagoing vessels for centuries, many a ship having run aground and perished on the jagged rocks of Morte Point and Hartland Point. Lighthouses were built at strategic locations, providing a much-needed warning to ships passing through the Bristol Channel. The Hartland lighthouse (see Figure 2.18) remains as a prominent local landmark, as does the 'Old Light', crowning the highest land of Lundy Island.

Figure ‎2.18: Hartland Point lighthouse

19th Century to the Second World War

2.61 The late 18th century witnessed a decline in the wool, cloth and mining industries, spurring an exodus of people leaving the countryside for the towns. The development of railways and the road system in the early 19th century accelerated the movement of people from the poorer farmlands to the larger settlements, particularly along the coast. The routes of Turnpike Roads developed during this period are still used today, with the many toll houses and stone milestones forming characterful landscape features. During this period the seaside towns were beginning to enjoy the growth of a new industry - tourism.

2.62 This trend of rural depopulation was further stimulated by an agricultural depression in the late 1870s, which saw arable crop prices fall, leading to much arable land being laid down to grass. In the Culm Measures areas, many improved fields were allowed to revert back to moorland.

2.63 The effect of the holiday industry on the North Devon and Torridge landscape started with the growth and changing form of towns, as well as the style of buildings, open spaces and sea fronts. The building of the Victorian rail network linked Great Torrington to Barnstaple (now the Tarka Trail) and Barnstaple to Ilfracombe, opening up the adjacent coastline to tourism (including Ilfracombe Harbour - see Figure 2.19). Later constructions linked Bideford to Appledore via Westward Ho!. The moneyed classes had already discovered the scenic and climatic amenities of the North Devon Coast during the previous century, but Westward Ho! and Ilfracombe were to grow significantly in late Victorian times as popular holiday resorts. Villages such as Combe Martin and Croyde stretched seaward along the base of sheltered combes, whilst other small coastal hamlets such as Woolacombe expanded along the sea front with Victorian villas and imposing hotels.

2.64 By the 1920s the holiday industry had become the Devon's largest and most lucrative industry. The 1931 census shows that nearly 10% of the adult population were employed in 'personal service' trades, compared with 7.5% in farming. Nevertheless, before the Second World War Devon was the biggest cattle county in England and Wales, and second only to Northumberland in terms of sheep numbers in the English counties (Hoskins, 1954).

Figure ‎2.19: Ilfracombe harbour

Post-War to the present

2.65 The two world wars had brought a degree of landscape change, whether it was the large-scale conversion of unimproved grassland to arable, or the construction of defensive sites such as pill-boxes at Braunton and Croyde, and structures relating to D-day landing practice undertaken by the allies at Baggy Point and Braunton Burrows. Two RAF airfields - Chivenor and Winkleigh - remain as major landscape features, as do radar stations still visible at Northam Burrows, Hartland Point and Wrafton. However, the post-war years witnessed much more dramatic and speedy change than possibly any other period in history.

2.66 The drive for agricultural intensification in the post-war decades, stimulated by production-related subsidies through the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) introduced in the1970s, has had a significant effect on the farmed landscape. Farm units have steadily grown in size, amalgamating smaller farms and leaving some buildings ripe for conversion or falling into disrepair. Intensification has led to the loss of hedgerows to accommodate larger farm machinery and create larger fields in many parts of the landscape, including on Saunton Down. Despite this loss and damage to remaining sections through annual mechanical cutting, hedgerows and hedge-banks still perform vital functions for stock control and shelter. Organisations like the Devon Hedge Group and CPRE have been established in recent years to educate farmers and the wider public about the importance and great diversity of Devon's hedges, seeking to encourage their future protection and re-instatement reflecting local styles and traditions of construction.

2.67 Other agricultural improvements, such as land drainage (leading to the loss of significant areas of Culm grassland), crop spraying, ploughing up of pastures and the loss of traditional orchards have also left their mark, reducing the biodiversity of pasture and arable land, increasing the vivid green of fields and reducing local distinctiveness. Along the coast, farmed fields push to the very edge of the cliffs, often providing an abrupt transition to the tracts of coastal scrub, heathland and maritime grasslands that remain.

2.68 The extensive grazing traditionally practiced on marginal land such as the coastal edge has also declined in recent years, leading to a reversion of the open coastal grassland and heathland habitats to scrub and bracken. This has contributed to the local extinction of the Large Blue butterfly from the AONB-designated coast. A decline in grazing on the valued Culm grasslands, in favour of more agriculturally productive land elsewhere, has also led to their succession to scrub and trees in places.

2.69 The introduction of agri-environment schemes in the early 1990s (Countryside Stewardship and Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESA) scheme) as well as the current Environmental Stewardship scheme have helped reinstate the links between agricultural management and the stewardship of the land. Where farmers have participated in these schemes, the support has helped stimulate a gradual reversal of some of the trends described in the previous paragraphs. The Environmental Stewardship scheme is continuing to help manage and enhance key wildlife habitats and landscape features through environmentally sensitive farming methods.

2.70 A similar story has been seen for woodland management, with recent decades witnessing a decline in markets for wood products (such as charcoal, bark for tanning, coppice for firewood, timber for furniture), leading to creeping neglect and a decline in woodland management skills such as coppicing. The loss of significant numbers of elm trees during the Dutch Elm Disease outbreak of the 1970s/80s also had a dramatic effect on parts of the landscape. Current outbreaks of pests and disease are also leading to the loss of trees and subsequent changes to landscape character. In particular, ash dieback could result in the loss of 75-95% of the UK's ash trees will be lost in the next 20 to 30 years. A range of newly available funding and delivery mechanisms for tree and woodland planning and creation are available or will shortly become available. This includes the England Woodland Creation Offer (EWCO) a grant scheme administered by the Forestry Commission that supports the creation of a range of woodland types and sizes, including natural colonisation, of small areas of land from 1 ha upwards. The Woodland Creation Planning Grant provides funding for production of UK Forestry Standard (UKFS) compliant woodland creation design plans, which can support applications to other funding sources for woodland creation, such as the Woodland Carbon Fund. Countryside Stewardship scheme funding is also available for the creation and maintenance of new woodland. The new Environmental Land Management Scheme (ELMs) will pay farmers for work that enhances the natural environment, including tree and hedge planting and management. These initiatives all aim to have a positive impact on woodland management and new woodland planting.

2.71 Conversion of semi-natural woodlands and other habitats in favour of timber plantations in the 20th century has also had a significant impact on the woodland character of the landscape. The Forestry Commission now takes a holistic approach to the management of their sites - seeking to enhance their biodiversity and landscape value (including softening 'hard' edges, restructuring with mixed and broadleaved species and restoring some areas to open habitats such as heathland and Culm grassland) whilst also exploring the opportunities the plantations offer for recreation and, of course, sustainable future timber production. The England Trees Action Plan 2021-2024 provides a framework which outlines how to design, manage and protect woodlands in a way which contributes to the delivery of multiple ecosystem services.

2.72 The most significant recent and ongoing trends affecting the landscape stem from development pressure, tourism and climate change (both its effects and mitigation measures). A steady population growth, the popularity of the area as a retirement destination and a general lack of affordable housing is fuelling a continuing demand for new housing and related services across the two districts. Development pressures on greenfield sites, particularly on the edges of settlements, are therefore becoming more and more significant. The recent national drive to incorporate Green Infrastructure into new development proposals seeks to ensure settlements are well integrated into their landscape setting, whilst providing additional benefits through the creation of new semi-natural habitats, recreational resources and carbon sinks.

2.73 Tourism-led development and the popularity of the area as a place to live has also steadily gathered pace over the last few decades. This has led to the location of holiday parks, caravan sites and car parks within prominent coastal locations, along with highly visible ridgeline development of retirement apartments and holiday accommodation at Westward Ho! (see Figure 2.20). The diversification of traditional farm enterprises to tap into the burgeoning tourism market includes the provision of activities such as horse riding and off-road vehicular tracks. This has helped supplement traditional farm incomes which have dropped significantly over the last decade. On the other side of the coin this trend has also led to incremental landscape change in some locations, eroding local distinctiveness and traditional land uses.

Figure ‎2.20: Tourism development at Westward Ho! © North Devon Coast AONB

2.74 The related impacts of development in the area include the modernisation of the road network to account for higher volumes of traffic - leading to unsympathetic line markings, signage, curbs and straightening. In addition, the requirements of modern living have led to the introduction of electricity pylons, overhead cables and radio masts into the rural landscape. The effect of these tall vertical structures on the skyline can affect the enjoyment of many rural views, including within the AONB.

2.75 The fabric of the districts' settlements has also been altered in recent decades - traditional buildings have been replaced and restored using mass-produced building materials and standardised building designs.

2.76 A decline in traditional building skills, the shortage and high price of local stone and the labour-intensive nature of the work has made modern building techniques preferable for many. A push for sustainable building design is also having an impact on the design and materials chosen for new developments.

2.77 Figure 2.21 shows the extent of dark night skies in 2015, showing the influence of development (particularly around Barnstaple, Bideford and Ilfracombe). Nevertheless, the map illustrates that there remains significant tracts of landscape largely unaffected by modern development and dark night skies with minimal light pollution. These qualities are particularly rare in 21st century England.

Figure ‎2.21: Dark night skies

Future forces for change

2.78 The drivers of future landscape change are inherently difficult to predict, as well as the nature of their impacts, intensity and inter-relationships. The key drivers for landscape change in the two districts (a mixture of emerging forces for change discussed as well as a continuation of current ones discussed in the previous section) are likely to include a combination of some or all of the following:

• Climate change - mitigation (reducing the causes of climate change, including renewable energy generation) and adaptation (adapting to the effects of climate change both naturally and through planned interventions, seeking to minimise adverse effects).

• Natural processes, including the effects of climate change - such as flooding, erosion and the changing patterns of pests and diseases, all of which are likely to become more extreme with climate change.

• Technological advancement - advances in technology in all aspects of life from communication (e.g. increased numbers of people working from home following the Covid-19 pandemic) and energy production to industrial-scale food growing.

• Economic and market trends - driven by booms / recessions, shifting economic power, globalisation / localisation. Brexit has impacted on the market value and ability to trade agricultural goods and the as yet unconfirmed design and payment structure of the emerging Environmental Land Management schemes bring further uncertainties to the sector.

• Social and cultural trends - such as demographic change including migration and life expectancy, health and physical wellbeing, human needs and wants, and changing patterns of living which in combination are likely to lead to increased development.

• Changing values - and increasing confidence in our ability to challenge undesired change.

• Policy and regulatory responses - International, national, regional and local policy and regulatory responses to all of the above.

Climate change

2.79 The effects and our responses to climate change are fast becoming the most important driver for change in the 21st century. The UK Government has set out policies relating to climate change in the 25 Year Environment Plan [See reference ] and the Net Zero Strategy [See reference ]. In February 2019, Devon County Council agreed to declare a 'Climate Emergency'. Both district councils have also declared a climate emergency and signed 'The Devon Climate Declaration' which commits to collaborating to engage Devon's residents, businesses and visitors to develop and implement a plan to achieve a 45% reduction in carbon emissions by 2030 and by 100% by 2050 or at the earliest credible date supported by emerging research.

2.80 If current predictions are correct, rising sea levels will squeeze and put pressure on coastal habitats and species. Inland habitats and species will have to cope with new and changing seasonal temperatures and rainfall patterns. Pests and diseases are likely to take on a new prevalence (including phytopthera [See reference ], ash dieback and acute oak decline), as well as exotic, non-native plant and animal species - combining to change the distribution and composition of semi-natural habitats across the landscape.

Nature recovery

2.81 As part of the 25 Year Environment Plan, the UK Government has committed to creating the Nature Recovery Network, with the aim of enhancing valued semi-natural habitats, creating/restoring new semi-natural habitats outside of protected sites and improving linkages and connectivity between habitats. This will increase the resilience of the landscape to climate change, providing natural solutions to reduce carbon and manage flood risk, and sustaining vital ecosystems such as improved soil, clean water and clean air. The Devon Local Nature Partnership has begun to create a Nature Recovery Network Map which will provide an evidence base to guide opportunities/priorities for habitat restoration and creation. The new Environment Act will require 10% Biodiversity Net Gain as part of developments which will also contribute to habitat creation within the districts.

2.82 Actions arising from the North Devon UNESCO Biosphere Reserve Action Plan [See reference 6] aim to restore natural ecosystems. The plan includes five Action Plan areas covering the major land types found within the Biosphere: Coast, grassland and arable, towns and villages, trees, woodland and hedges, wetlands and waterbodies.

2.83 Woodland planting is a focus of the UK Government pledge for Net Zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. New tree and woodland planting bring a range of benefits for both nature and society, but need to be carefully planned. This is not least in recognition of the fact that other natural habitats that may be characteristic in a landscape are equally as important (or in some cases, more so) for ecosystem service delivery, including carbon sequestration. New tree and woodland planting should therefore take account of the receiving landscape - with a focus on 'right place, right tree, right way [See reference ]' principles. The Riverscapes Partnership (The Rivers Trust, National Trust, The Woodland Trust and Beaver Trust) "Woodlands for Water" project [See reference ] will plant hundreds of hectares of woodland within the Taw and Torridge Catchment Areas to help manage flood risk and improve water quality and wildlife habitats. Additionally, the Environment Act 2021 seeks to improve legal protection for existing trees and woodland. It requires local authorities to develop Local Nature Recovery Strategies and facilitates funding for trees and woodland across England. This will include both public and privately funded tree planting initiatives in order to meet the government's overall target to treble current woodland creation rates by May 2024.

2.84 Devon Wildlife Trust are leading the 'Saving Devon's Treescapes' project, in partnership with the Devon Ash Dieback Resilience Forum. Running until 2025, the project aims to protect, enhance, restore and replace Devon's iconic treescapes, aiming to plant 250,000 trees outside of woodlands across Devon as well as increasing knowledge and raising awareness of the cultural significance of ash trees in the region [See reference 9].

2.85 The Devon Hedge Group has produced a document [See reference 10] on the distinctive hedge types found throughout Devon, including an indicative distribution map, details on their contribution to landscape character, heritage, ecological characteristics, and their varying management requirements.

Agriculture

2.86 The character of the area's farmland is also likely to change in response to a changing climate. Changing weather patterns will affect growing seasons, yields, viable crops and stock. This is beginning to be seen as an opportunity for farmers to tap into new markets - such as bioenergy crop planting and English wine making. In addition, a push for more domestic food production had led to an industrialisation of farm production in parts of the districts' landscape, with large modern agricultural buildings and sheds appearing out of scale with their surroundings. An increase in related traffic (farm supplies, contractors etc), often transported in HGVs is also beginning to affect the character of the narrow, unmarked rural lanes. As well as an industrialisation of agriculture, legislation relating to the storage of farm waste (to minimise diffuse pollution) has resulted in the construction of large buildings and covered livestock standing areas, often out of context with the small-scale, medieval landscapes found across much of the landscape.

2.87 The full impacts of Brexit on the agricultural sector are yet to become apparent, although there has already been an effect on the market value and ability to trade certain agricultural produce. The emerging Environmental Land Management schemes (ELMS) will also impact the finances of farms, with a shifting focus towards paying for 'public goods' and ecosystem service delivery. The uncertainty around the future payment levels and practicalities of the new schemes is adding to the fragility of the agricultural economy at present.

Renewable energy

2.88 In the 21st century, the development of renewable and low carbon forms of energy has emerged as a major force for change in today's landscape. At a domestic and farm scale, the development of building-mounted or free-standing wind turbines and solar panels has introduced new structures into the landscape. Farmers have also developed ways to use their farm waste as an energy source through the installation of anaerobic digestion facilities.

Figure ‎2.22: Fullabrook Wind Farm

2.89 The landscape's strong coastal winds and presence of significant tracts of non-designated land (i.e. National Parks or AONBs) mean that there is ever-increasing pressure for large scale wind turbines both onshore and offshore. There are 13 wind turbine installations in Torridge district and three in North Devon. Fullabrook Down wind farm (Figure 2.22) is the largest installation in the two districts. The site was constructed in 2011 and contains twenty-two 110 metre wind turbines which produce enough electricity for around 30,000 homes. The turbines are highly visible from across the surrounding landscape, the AONB and Exmoor National Park. There were also proposals for an offshore windfarm ('Atlantic Array') in the Bristol Channel, just off the coast of Lundy, which exposed a lack of evidence on 'seascape' to guide such developments sensitively - leading to the commissioning of the Seascape Character Assessment for North Devon and Exmoor in 2015. Although the Atlantic Array scheme did not proceed, ongoing demand for alternative sources of renewable energy production to meet the UK's climate change targets means that future offshore wind and tidal energy schemes are likely to come forward with potential impacts on the character of the landscape, seascape and iconic coastal views. There are other proposals for offshore wind installations off the coast. In addition, the grid connections of offshore wind farms would also impact on the landscape and seascape.

2.90 Over the past decade, ground-mounted solar PV farms (see Figure 2.23) have become a frequent feature in the landscape of the districts and a notable force for change. These range from small 'farm-scale' installations to large commercial solar PV farms which cover multiple fields. In November 2021, permission for a 66 hectare solar PV farm was granted near Holsworthy in Torridge District. There is likely to be ongoing pressure for solar PV in the districts resulting from the drive towards Net Zero and the presence of south-facing slopes and higher than average levels of solar radiation which provide the technical potential for these installations.

Figure ‎2.23: Solar farm (1 ha) at Gortonhill Moors near South Molton

Tourism and development

2.91 Other key forces for change in the districts relate to a growing population and increasing levels of tourism (including domestic tourism). An increasing population is leading to continued pressure for development on fringes of existing settlements as well as the upgrading of roads including the dualling of A-roads and new traffic management infrastructure/junctions. Tourism (particularly domestic tourism following the Covid-19 pandemic) is resulting in demand for facilities including accommodation (including farm conversions and camping/caravan/glamping sites) and new access routes/car parking. The seasonal nature of tourism leads to issues including heavy traffic on rural roads and potential damage to sensitive habitats from increased footfall. These pressures tend to be focused in sensitive areas of the landscape including the AONB-designated coastline and the most accessible stretches of the South West Coast Path.

2.92 The individual Devon Character Area profiles include more locally-specific information on current and future forces for change affecting landscape character.

North Devon and Torridge Landscape Character Update (PDF) [8MB]