North Devon and Torridge - Landscape Character Assessment Update
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Introduction
1.1 This chapter provides an overview of the Landscape Character Assessment update and its policy context.
Overview of the Landscape Character Assessment
1.2 This Landscape Character Assessment (LCA) for North Devon and Torridge Districts has been prepared by LUC for the two local authorities. It is an update of the original Joint Landscape Character Assessment for North Devon and Torridge District which was adopted by both Councils in 2011.
1.3 This new LCA provides an up-to-date and robust evidence base on landscape, assessing the character of the districts' diverse landscapes, evaluating current and potential future drivers for change, and setting out guidance for landscape conservation, planning and enhancement.
1.4 This LCA will support planning and management decisions within the two districts, including the nationally designated landscape of the North Devon Coast Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB).
1.5 This report can be used to consider landscape character when planning any type of change, such as:
to inform work on policy development as part of Development Plans;
to inform development management; guiding development and land management that is sympathetic to local character and sense of place;
to promote an understanding of how landscapes are changing and how they can be strengthened to become resilient to future pressures (including climate change);
to inform decisions on land management, nature recovery and biodiversity net gain.
1.6 The assessment covers all of the land within the AONB, but excludes parts of North Devon District falling within Exmoor National Park. However, the assessment takes account of the special qualities that underpin the national designations of both the AONB and National Park, along with the setting of Dartmoor National Park to the south.
1.7 The location of the two districts in the context of the AONB, National Parks, nationally defined Heritage Coasts and the North Devon UNESCO Biosphere Reserve is shown in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: Location of districts and Protected Landscapes
Legal and policy context
The European Landscape Convention
1.8 The European Landscape Convention (ELC) came into force in the UK in March 2007. It establishes the need to recognise landscape in law; to develop landscape policies dedicated to the protection, management and planning of landscapes; and to establish procedures for the participation of the general public and other stakeholders in the creation and implementation of landscape policies.
1.9 The ELC definition of 'landscape' recognises that all landscapes matter, be they ordinary, degraded or outstanding:
1.10 "Landscape means an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors"
1.11 The Convention puts emphasis on the whole landscape and all its values and is forward looking in its approach, recognising the dynamic and changing character of landscape. Specific measures promoted by the Convention, of direct relevance to this study include:
the identification and assessment of landscape; and
improved consideration of landscape in existing and future sectoral and spatial policy and regulation.
1.12 The ELC remains in place following the UK's departure from the EU in 2020.
25 Year Environment Plan
1.13 The 25 Year Environment Plan was published in 2018 and set out the UK Government's aims to deliver cleaner air and water, protect threatened species and improve biodiversity. The policies within the plan aim to protect and restore the environment and have wide reaching implications for agriculture, forestry and land use, including a drive for sustainable land use, creating new habitats for wildlife and planting more trees to arrest the decline in native species and improve biodiversity.
England Tree Strategy
1.14 The England Tree Strategy [See reference ] (feeding into the England Trees Action Plan) sets out policy priorities to deliver the government's target to plant 30,000 ha of woodland per year across the UK by 2025, to expand tree cover, support woodland management and increase public engagement with trees and woodlands as well as combat climate change and recover biodiversity. An analysis of consultation responses published in May 2021, highlighted that local authorities play an important role in delivering many aspects of new woodland creation.
Environment Act 2021
1.15 The Environment Act 2021 set clear statutory targets for the recovery of the natural world in four priority areas: air quality, biodiversity, water and waste, and includes an important new target to reverse the decline in species abundance by the end of 2030. It will require local authorities to develop Local Nature Recovery Strategies which will help deliver nature recovery within a national framework. It will also facilitate funding for trees and woodland across England. This will include both public and privately funded tree planting initiatives in order to meet the government's overall target to treble current woodland creation rates.
Agriculture Act 2020
1.16 The Agriculture Act 2020 introduces the concept of 'payment for public goods', meaning that agricultural subsidies should be directed towards public goods (such as environmental improvements) that are not rewarded through the market.
National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF)
1.17 The revised NPPF, published in July 2021, states in paragraph 174 that:
1.18 'Planning policies and decisions should contribute to and enhance the natural and local environment by:
...protecting and enhancing valued landscapes, sites of biodiversity or geological value and soils (in a manner commensurate with their statutory status or identified quality)'
...recognising the intrinsic character and beauty of the countryside and the wider benefits from natural capital and ecosystem services - including the economic and other benefits of the best and most versatile agricultural land, and of trees and woodland ...'
1.19 The NPPF is supported by Planning Practice Guidance which recognises the role that Landscape Character Assessment plays in helping to understand the character and local distinctiveness of the landscape. This assessment for North Devon and Torridge provides evidence to help protect valued landscapes and recognise the intrinsic value and beauty of the countryside.
Local Plans
1.20 The first joint North Devon and Torridge Local Plan (2011-2031) was adopted on the 29th October 2018.
1.21 One of the strategic aims of the plan is to make Northern Devon 'A World Class Environment - where important assets are valued and enhanced for future generations', which includes the following objectives:
(a) the undeveloped coastline, estuarine and important countryside assets of northern Devon are protected and enhanced;
(b) important wildlife habitats, protected landscapes, and our distinctive heritage are conserved and enhanced and the decline of biodiversity is reversed;
(c) land is used efficiently and effectively - optimise how ecosystem services provide and result in productive living landscapes and townscapes that adapt to our changing needs.
1.22 Other policies in the Plan relevant to landscape include:
Policy DM08A: Landscape and Seascape Character which states that: 'Development should be of an appropriate scale, mass and design that recognises and respects landscape character of both designated and undesignated landscapes and seascapes; it should avoid adverse landscape and seascape impacts and seek to enhance the landscape and seascape assets wherever possible. Development must take into account and respect the sensitivity and capacity of the landscape/seascape asset, considering cumulative impact and the objective to maintain dark skies and tranquillity in areas that are relatively undisturbed, using guidance from the Joint Landscape and Seascape Character Assessments for North Devon and Torridge.'
- Policy ST14: Enhancing Environmental Assets which states that: 'The quality of northern Devon's natural environment will be protected and enhanced by ensuring that development contributes to:
...(e) conserving the setting and special character and qualities of the North Devon Coast Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty whilst fostering the social and economic wellbeing of the area;
(f) ensuring development conserves and enhances northern Devon's local distinctiveness including its tranquillity, and the setting and special qualities of Exmoor National Park including its dark night skies;
(g) protecting and enhancing local landscape and seascape character, taking into account the key characteristics, the historical dimension of the landscape and their sensitivity to change;
(h) recognising the importance of the undeveloped coastal, estuarine and marine environments through supporting designations, plans and policies that aim to protect and enhance northern Devon's coastline...'
1.23 This new Landscape Character Assessment will provide up-to-date evidence to inform the above policies in the Local Plan.
North Devon Coast Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty
1.24 The North Devon Coast AONB covers 171 square kilometres (66 square miles) of mainly coastal landscape from the border with Exmoor National Park at Combe Martin, through the mouth of the Taw-Torridge Estuary and beyond to the Cornish border at Marsland Mouth. It was designated in 1959 through the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act (1949) on merit of its outstanding coastal scenery and rich cultural, agricultural and maritime heritage. There are also two Heritage Coasts within the AONB; Hartland Heritage Coast and North Devon Heritage Coast. Hartland Heritage Coast is characterised by rugged cliffs, while North Devon Heritage Coast includes long, sandy beaches in addition to cliff faces and rocky foreshores.
1.25 The Statutory Management Plan for the AONB (2019-2024) includes objectives and policies for planning development in the protected landscape. The Management Plan includes an objective under its 'Landscape and Seascape' theme to use this Landscape Character Assessment as a tool to assist in planning decisions (Policy A5).
North Devon Biosphere Reserve
1.26 In addition to protected landscapes, it is also important to note that a large proportion of the two districts falls within the North Devon Biosphere Reserve - a UNESCO designation afforded to only seven sites in the UK (also shown in Figure 2.11). This designation was created to protect the biological and cultural diversity of a region while promoting and demonstrating sustainable economic development. In the case of North Devon, the wider reserve covers the wider catchment of the Taw and Torridge Rivers, stretching from Dartmoor and Exmoor to the coast and beyond to Lundy (around 3,300 km2). The core area of the Reserve is focused on Braunton Burrows and the Taw/Torridge Estuary; areas of international importance for biodiversity. Whilst this designation is not recognised in planning policy terms in the same way as National Parks and AONBs, it forms a key element of the spatial strategy for the area in the Joint Local Plan (see paragraph 1.19).
Structure of this report
1.27 This report is structured as follows:
Chapter 2 describes the physical and cultural evolution of the landscape.
Chapter 3 describes the Landscape Character Assessment method.
Appendix A contains the data list used to inform the LCA update.
Appendix B contains a table outlining the changes made to the Landscape Character Type (LCT) and Devon Character Area (DCA) classification as part of this review.
Appendix C contains a list of the stakeholder workshop attendees.
North Devon and Torridge Landscape Character Update (PDF) [8MB]
Chapter 2 - The Physical and Cultural Evolution of the Landscape
2.1 This Chapter gives an overview of the main phases of physical and cultural evolution which have shaped the landscape
Geological and physical evolution
Geology and landform
2.2 The two districts are underlain by a complex geology that has strongly shaped and influenced the character of the landscape over hundreds of millions of years. See Figure 2.1.
2.3 The area displays a clear divide in its underlying rocks - a geological boundary roughly follows the Taw-Torridge Estuary, above which lie the resistant Devonian slates and sandstones which form the high land of Exmoor and the North Devon Downs [See reference 2]. The northern extent of the wide, rounded ridges of the high downland is marked by a broad ridgeline running parallel to the coast. This connects all the long 'fingers' of downland running south, divided by steep wooded valleys and coastal combes. The Devonian rocks are displayed in a distinctive jagged coastline of folded strata and pronounced western headlands of more resistant Pickwell Down sandstone. These headlands have been landmarks for centuries; Morte Point being especially dreaded by mariners as a notorious wrecking ground.
Figure 2.1: Geology of the two Districts
2.4 To the south of the estuary, spanning both North Devon and Torridge districts, are younger and softer Carboniferous 'Culm Measures', comprising crushed and folded shales and sandstones originally laid down as sediments in a vast sea between 280 and 395 million years ago. These extend to cover a significant portion of Devon from the Exe Valley westwards to the Atlantic seaboard. The area is frequently dissected by small streams and rivers resulting in a rolling landform characterised by broad sandstone ridges separated by shale valleys. The high sandstone ridges are some of the most exposed land in the districts - for example, the farmland around Rackenford reaches some 280 metres above sea level. An anomaly in the typical Culm landform is the thin band of limestone stretching from Swimbridge towards South Molton. This creates a series of distinctive whaleback chert ridges, including Codden Hill, affording panoramic views across the surrounding landscapes (Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.2: Panoramic views from Codden Hill
2.5 The coastline framing Torridge District showcases steeply inclined strata formed through considerable faulting and folding during periods of massive uplift at the end of the Carboniferous period, some 300 million years ago (the 'Variscan Orogeny'). One particular fault has exposed a small amount of older Permian red sandstone at Portledge on the Clovelly coast. This gives the cliffs an isolated splash of colour against the sombre greys and browns of the neighbouring Carboniferous rocks. The shaping and folding of the rocks by the massive earth movements at this time are dramatically illustrated in the cliffs and rocky foreshore along the Hartland coast, including at Hartland Quay.
2.6 Following the uplift of the landscape at the end of the Carboniferous period, the newly revealed land emerged into a sub-tropical arid climate, where storms swept large amounts of sediment into valleys and fringing desert plains. This gave rise to the local deposits of breccia and breccio-conglomerate now seen east of Clovelly. The strata were further displaced by a swarm of minor, and some major faults. Of most significance was the Sticklepath Fault, which occurred during the Tertiary Period, and runs north-west to south-east from Bideford Bay to Torbay in South Devon. This caused local subsidence to create the Petrockstowe Basin in Torridge District. Sand, clay and lignite accumulated in the beds of the rivers and lakes within the basin, forming the Ball Clay deposits found and worked around Petrockstowe and Meeth.
2.7 Devon did not experience the full effects of the Ice Age in the subsequent Quaternary period. The south-moving ice sheet extended no further than the cliffs of Bideford Bay. Increased river erosion during this period, however, gradually created much of the present landform. The rises in sea level that occurred with the melting of the ice sheets also caused some river valleys to be drowned by the sea, including the Taw-Torridge Estuary which remains a major feature of today's landscape.
2.8 The scenery changes dramatically at the mouth of the estuary, where the extensive dune systems of Braunton Burrows to the north (see Figure 2.1) and the smaller Northam Burrows to the south stretch low and wide between enclosing headlands. These features were largely the product of rising post-glacial sea levels which deposited estuarine clays and accumulations of marine sand. Onshore winds continue to feed the dune systems with sand blown from the wide beach at Saunton Sands.
2.9 Fronting Northam Burrows is an extensive pebble ridge, the continuation of a storm beach which fringes the cliff-foot from Clovelly eastwards. Material eroded from these cliffs enters the wave zone, becoming rounded into pebbles (or 'cobbles') which are lifted by waves and transported eastward by littoral drift. A relatively recent natural feature, in effect a 'shingle spit', the pebble ridge has been subject to considerable modification, and is slowly retreating landward. This has led to the local custom of 'potwalloping'. Households with a hearth ("pot") in the parish of Northam gather annually to lob ("wallop") cobbles back into breaches formed by the winter storms.
2.10 In the millennia since the last Ice Age, rising sea levels and exposure to Atlantic storm waves have produced classic examples of coastal erosion and deposition, including tall, rugged cliffs exposing wave-cut platforms, raised beaches, headlands, bays, caves, arches and stacks. Rising sea levels and consequent coastal retreat have also created hanging valleys where streams have been truncated to form cascading waterfalls falling down to beaches below, including Wargery Water and the Millford Water on the Hartland peninsula.
Figure 2.3: The rugged Hartland Coast at Blackpool Mill © Neville Stanikk, courtesy of the North Devon Coast AONB
2.11 To the north-west of the North Devon coast lies Lundy Island, sitting in the Bristol Channel some 23 miles west of Ilfracombe and 11 miles from Hartland Point. The island is very distinct from the geology of the rest of the districts, formed from a plateau of Tertiary granite thought to be left as a legacy from an ancient volcano. In fact, the granite rock of the island is believed to represent the southern-most example of igneous rocks associated with the initial formation of the North Atlantic Ocean around 60 million years ago.
2.12 The south-eastern corner of Lundy is all that remains of the original slates that formed over 100 million years earlier - similar to the Morte slates of North Devon from the Upper Devonian period. A vertical intrusion (dyke) of igneous rock forms a large protective face to slates remaining behind the island's Landing Beach, preventing the further erosion of these older rocks. There is evidence in the form of rouches moutonées, erratics and U-shaped valleys that, unlike mainland Devon, an ice sheet passed over Lundy during the last Ice Age.
Figure 2.4: Granite rock formations on Lundy's west coast
Drainage
2.13 This text summarises the main drainage patterns of Torridge and North Devon, starting with Torridge District (see Figure 2.6).
2.14 The River Taw flows from its source on Dartmoor across North Devon and into parts of Torridge District on its course to meet the River Torridge at the Taw-Torridge Estuary. The district is also drained by the upper courses of the Tamar and the full length of the Torridge River - both of which rise on high ground just inland of Hartland Point.
2.15 The watershed between the Torridge and the Tamar, one mile east of Woolley Moor, was immortalised in Turner's painting shown in Figure 2.5 below.
2.16 From its source near the Hartland coast, the River Torridge flows south-east where it joins the River Waldon near Bradford. It then swings north and begins to flow towards the estuary at Bideford, and at Appledore it joins with the River Taw to feed into the Taw-Torridge Estuary. Tributaries of the river include the River Mere which joins south of Beaford, and the River Yeo which meets the river two kilometres south of Bideford.
2.17 The upper courses of the River Tamar are today dominated by two reservoirs (the Upper and Lower Tamar Lakes). As the river drains southwards on its course to meet the sea at Plymouth, it forms the county boundary with Cornwall. Several tributaries join from within the district, including the Rivers Deer, Claw, Carey and Wolf. The Wolf is dammed by another reservoir - Roadford Lake - which straddles the south-eastern boundary of the district and into West Devon.
Figure 2.5: An engraving of Turner's c1813 watercolour Source of the Tamar and Torridge. Photo: Tate.
Figure 2.6: Drainage
2.18 Across in North Devon District, the high land of Exmoor, like Dartmoor, attracts high precipitation levels, serving as a more immediate source of the district's rivers. These drain south and west from the moorland core, including the Bray and Mole (both tributaries of the River Yeo and, in their lower courses, the Taw). The elevated North Devon Downs, which cover much of the district west of Exmoor, are also dissected by steep wooded valleys containing minor rivers and streams which generally flow southwards to meet the Taw/Torridge estuary.
2.19 The south-western portion of the district, including the wet 'moors' lying above the slow-draining shales, mudstones and sandstones of the Culm Measures series, are crossed by numerous streams feeding into the Mole and Little Dart rivers - which are, in turn, tributaries of the River Taw, the main river of North Devon. Along with the River Torridge, the Taw is famously associated with Henry Williamson's 1927 novel Tarka the Otter. The Tarka Trail, which follows an old railway line along the two rivers, is also named after the otter depicted in Williamson's book.
2.20 The steep coastal plateaux and cliffs framing both districts are characterised by short streams cutting combes through the landscape on their route to the sea, sometimes forming hanging valleys and spectacular watercourses as they leave the land.
Soils and land use
2.21 The Culm Measures which underlie a large proportion of the landscape consist of dark shales and sandstone ridges, the former weathering into cold, heavy and badly drained soils and the latter into shallow, stony and agriculturally poor soils. Waterlogged gley and brown earth and soils give rise to a predominantly pastoral landscape supporting internationally important tracts of biodiversity-rich Culm grasslands and mires left unimproved for agriculture (see paragraph 2.29). The agriculturally poor nature of land within the Culm Measures is also likely to have had an influence over its choice for the location of large blocks of mixed and coniferous plantations.
Figure 2.7: Traditional cropping methods near South Molton
2.22 North of the geological divide marked by the Taw-Torridge Estuary, the free-draining and more fertile soils sitting above the Devonian slates and sandstones support a combination of arable and pasture (Figure 2.7), as well as areas of traditional open sheep pasture (downland) towards the west coast.
2.23 Across the two districts the slopes of the main river valleys and their tributaries are sheltered and more freely drained, producing the most fertile soils of the area supporting rich farmland and traditional orchards.
2.24 Figure 2.8 shows the Agricultural Land Classification of the two districts, which indicates how agriculturally productive different areas are.
Climate
2.25 The climate of the two districts, set within the context of the wider South West peninsula, affects the landscape through exposure, rainfall and temperature. In turn these influence the area's characteristic vegetation cover, soil quality and settlement patterns. Nowhere on the peninsula is the sea more than 25 miles away, resulting in a maritime climate characterised by milder winters and cooler summers than elsewhere in the UK. The predominant westerly winds also bring high rainfall (approximately 1,000 millimetres a year), generally favouring permanent pasture for livestock farming and supporting favourable conditions for the development of the area's distinctive Culm grasslands.
Figure 2.8: Agricultural land classification
2.26 The long coastline framing the two districts is greatly influenced by the prevailing weather conditions. The west-facing coast between Hartland Point and the Cornish border catches the full brunt of the Atlantic weather. Long exposure to salt-laden winds has produced a wild and windswept quality contrasting markedly with the adjacent Clovelly coastline which is more sheltered. Such degrees of exposure have in turn influenced the natural vegetation cover found along the coast. Trees are rare; those which do survive are stunted and pruned by the strong winds into distinctive forms (Figure 2.9). The coastal woodlands backing the more sheltered Bideford Bay (particularly around Clovelly) are therefore particularly important; internationally protected as part of a wider Special Area of Conservation (SAC).
Figure 2.9: Exposed pines on the North Devon coast
2.27 The climate of the area (and Devon more widely) has been an important influence in determining farming types and practices along with the location of settlement and, over the last two centuries, the ever-growing popularity of the area for tourism.
Semi-natural habitats
2.28 The unique combination of climate, soils, topography, and human interaction (the latter described in the following section) has produced a diverse range of semi-natural habitats across the two districts, supporting a rich variety of plants and animals. Reflecting the nature conservation importance of the landscape's semi-natural habitats are 58 Sites of Special Scientific Interest within the two districts covering nearly 4,000 hectares, along with six Special Areas of Conservation (wholly or partly within) and a strong network of County Wildlife Sites. See Figure 2.11.
2.29 Particularly associated with the area are the Culm grasslands which are found scattered across the Hartland Peninsula and the Bideford Bay Coast, and represented more extensively across the wet inland moors and valley bottoms of both districts (see Figure 2.10). Most of the sites fall within the Culm Grasslands Special Area of Conservation (SAC), representing the remains of what was once a much larger network. The habitat is characterised by tussocks of Purple Moor Grass, interspersed with orchids, rushes, heath, mosses and other rare plants. This rich flora supports a wide range of insects including grasshoppers and butterflies, including the Marsh Fritillary which is classified as 'vulnerable' in Europe.
Figure 2.10: Cotton grass on Bursdon Moor © Neville Stanikk, courtesy of the North Devon Coast AONB
2.30 At some sites, such as Quoditch Moor Nature Reserve, some 28 species of butterfly have been recorded. Insects in turn attract birds including the barn owl and curlew, as well as mammals including the dormouse and several species of bat.
2.31 Other habitats valued within the farmland landscape are the many hundreds of miles of hedgerows and distinctive species-rich Devon hedge-banks which define the field patterns across the countryside. These support an abundance of wildlife, particularly as pasture and arable farming have intensified over recent decades, squeezing wildlife into smaller and smaller refuges. Woodlands cloaking valley sides, much ancient and oak-dominated, along with smaller farm woods and copses scattered throughout also provide important havens for wildlife. The streams and rivers themselves are highly valued for nature conservation - the clean, fast flowing water providing a stronghold for the otter, a UK Priority Species.
2.32 Along the coast are diverse mosaics of maritime grassland, heathland and scrub, combined with sea cliffs, rocky shores, estuarine salt marsh and sand dunes. These form a complex, and in many parts, internationally valuable coastal ecosystem within the North Devon Biosphere Reserve.
Figure 2.11: Biodiversity designations
Figure 2.12: Western oak woodland extending to the cliff line at Mouthmill © North Devon Coast AONB
2.33 Western oak woodland along the Clovelly coast and within the coastal combes represents a significant and extensive wildlife resource, much of which comprises ancient semi-natural woodland. The quality of the air, unpolluted by industrial emissions and constantly freshened by Atlantic westerlies, is a particular asset, indicated by the proliferation and variety of lichens on rocks and within broadleaved woodlands, scrub and parklands. Straggling clumps of 'Sausage lichen' along the country lanes of the Hartland Peninsula are an example of how a locally indigenous species can contribute to the local landscape character. On Lundy Island, the endemic Lundy Cabbage, found nowhere else in the world, contributes to the distinctive local character and unique ecosystem of the island.
Figure 2.13: The endemic Lundy cabbage
Cultural and historic evolution
2.34 The physical processes that have shaped the landscape of the two districts have also had an indirect but significant influence on the character of the landscape once humans appeared on the scene. Mining resources, the presence of running water for power, building materials, along with the influence of landform on shelter, accessible transport routes and defensible positions, all played a part in forming the landscape's settlement pattern and the character of many of today's towns and villages. The rich cultural heritage is reflected in a number of national designations, including 374 Scheduled Monuments, 4,298 Listed Buildings, one Designated Wreck (off Lundy) and seven Historic England registered Parks and Gardens (see Figure 2.14). In total, the districts' Historic Environment Record lists some 14,000 sites of archaeological and historic interest, from Palaeolithic hand axes to Cold War bunkers; from single spot finds to landscape scale features such as Braunton Great Field.
Figure 2.14: Heritage designations
The Mesolithic and Neolithic Periods (8,000-2,500 BC)
2.35 By Mesolithic times, as the climate warmed up after the last Ice Age, it is likely that the landscape was covered in extensive woodland. Man's impact on the landscape would have been very minimal, with hunter-gatherers beginning to clear the forests of oak, hazel, elm and lime to make clearings for herding larger mammals. Finds of Mesolithic flint tools indicate this activity, mostly along the coast and on Lundy. Neolithic flints are more widespread, with particular concentrations around Georgeham and Abbotsham. It is believed from evidence from the uplands (particularly Dartmoor), that the methods of woodland clearance on higher ground led to the subsequent development of bog and heathland habitats.
2.36 The early Neolithic period witnessed the beginnings of agricultural cultivation, as well as the construction of settlements and trading posts. It is thought that the landscape at this time would have been divided into wild wood, cultivated and grazed land, with open moor remaining on higher ground over 300 metres above sea level. There are a few examples of late Neolithic / early Bronze Age communal/ritual monuments such as standing stones, stone rows and settings in clearances, largely confined to the uplands.
2.37 The coastline at this time would have extended further out than its present extent, with the sea level some 37 metres lower than today. Many archaeological remains which were situated on the coastal margins during this period have therefore been buried under coastal sediments or lost to the sea, with exceptions including a submerged stone row at Yelland.
The Bronze and Iron Ages (1,500 BC to 43 AD)
2.38 The Bronze Age marks the start of any significant visual evidence of human activity in the landscape, with a number of the area's high ridges displaying a scattering of Bronze Age tumuli, barrows and small enclosures, including on Welsford and Bursdon Moors and along the high ridge of the North Devon Downs. Bronze Age barrows also feature in the landscape between the headwaters of the rivers Torridge and Lydeland, north of Pancrasweek, as well as on the high moorland north of Ashwater and between the Upper Torridge and the Upper Taw. It is thought that, as well as burials, the barrows may have served additional functions in marking prehistoric ridgeway routes or territorial boundaries. The choice of coastal locations for some barrows, such as Embury Beacon and Gallantry Bower, might have had some ritual significance.
2.39 Other components of the prehistoric landscape include standing stones at Lee and a number of major barrow cemeteries. The Iron Age saw the construction of a number of hill forts and defensive enclosures occupying prominent coastal and valley positions. Embury Beacon is one such example on the Hartland Coast, comprising the eroding remains of a dramatic promontory fort. Other enclosures include Hillsborough Hillfort (east of Ilfracombe - see Figure 2.15) and Clovelly Dykes , the former occupying a commanding position looking out to sea and along the North Devon coast. Inland, a number of valleys are overlooked by defensive forts, including Castle Hill settlement above the Torridge, and Brighley Barton Camp above the Taw - both Scheduled Monuments.
Figure 2.15: Hillsborough hillfort which rises above Ilfracombe
2.40 Lundy Island is also incredibly rich in remains from the Bronze and Iron Ages, including relic huts (their granite circular walls - hut circles) and Iron Age field enclosures. It is thought that the island's use as a seasonal fishing base in the late Mesolithic period developed into a permanently inhabited landscape by the Bronze Age, used by early farmers for sheep grazing, hunting sea birds, fishing and egg collecting.
2.41 Across the district is a wider distribution of later prehistoric enclosed farmsteads surviving as earthworks and also visible as archaeological cropmarks. Concentrations of the latter are found in the hinterland of the Torridge estuary and around South Molton. It is possible that a more wooded area survived into the Romano-British period in the West Devon/North Devon/Mid Devon borderlands - signified by 'Nymet' place-names.
The Romano-British Period and the Dark Ages (43 AD - 700 AD)
2.42 Most historians believe that the Roman Invasion failed to make any significant marks on the landscape of the two districts, with Exeter very much a frontier town for their occupation. However, recent discoveries include Roman iron smelting works at Brayford and coastal hillcamps at Martinhoe and Countisbury, both in Exmoor National Park. The Roman iron smelting industry, with its established coppiced woodland system, suggests that this activity was already happening in the earlier Iron Age; the original woods having been cleared centuries before.
2.43 During this time farming probably developed to the stage when unenclosed open field systems began to evolve around homesteads, but the landscape remained thinly populated.
2.44 Towards the end of the Roman occupation, it is widely believed that the influence of the Celtic church was strong in the area. This was felt particularly along the North Devon coast, as missionary saints travelled across the sea from Ireland and South Wales to preach the Christian faith. The Taw-Torridge estuary must have provided a natural point of entry for the Saints, breaking the almost continuous sequence of treacherous cliffs to either side. Chapels and churches located along the coast bear the names of these Celtic Saints, including St. Elen (on Lundy and at Croyde) and St. Nectan (at Hartland and Welcombe) - both children of St. Brechan and therefore closely associated. To reinforce this bond, it is believed that the chapels on such sites were located within sight of each other, perhaps creating a web of inter-visibility reaching across to Wales. 'Berry' settlement names such as Blegberry and Titchberry may come from the defensive circuits located around 'Dark Age' native British sites.
The Saxon and Medieval Periods (700 - 1540)
2.45 While the date and speed of the Saxon Conquest of this part of Devon is uncertain, it is agreed that the takeover was complete by the turn of the eighth century, with only a few Native British place-names surviving. The Saxons had a significant influence on the landscape. As well as the establishment of the scattered pattern of hamlets and isolated farmsteads still characteristically associated with the rural landscape, nucleated villages developed, for example at Bideford, Braunton, Pilton and Northam - around which extensive open field systems were laid out.
2.46 Narrow winding lanes linked the new settlements and small irregular fields were enclosed by tall earth banks planted with hedges. Parishes were established or adopted from their Native British predecessors, with small stone churches and cottages clustered in sheltered hollows. Colonisation pushed more land into cultivation with woodland felled, heathlands ploughed, and waterlogged land drained. The open field systems surrounding some villages were enclosed into furlong strips with curving boundaries; these origins clearly visible in the modern landscape (e.g. around Croyde and Combe Martin). The fertile valleys of the Taw and Torridge rivers inland were favoured over the heavy or stony soils found along the coast.
2.47 Despite four centuries of widespread colonisation and occupation of the landscape by the Saxons, Hoskins (1954) observes that the population of Devon as a whole was still no larger than modern-day Exeter. There was little or no mining or industry (apart from small household ventures such as pottery or cloth-making) and trade was negligible; large parts of the landscape still lay 'waste' in moorland, woodland, heath and marsh.
2.48 The Norman Conquest and the subsequent two centuries saw immense changes to the Devon landscape, a period which Hoskins refers to as 'the great age of colonisation'. In the rural areas, thousands of farms came into existence, combined with a rapid spread of cultivated land enclosed within intricate fields. The enclosure and cultivation of areas of moorland, woodland, heath and riverside marshes 'was the work of free peasants, armed with a charter from the lord of the manor which granted them a piece of territory within specified boundaries' (Hoskins, 1954). Hoskins goes on to say that this activity:
'....coloured much of the political and social history of the county down to the 19th century, and even to the present day.'
2.49 A significant religious revival during this period saw parish churches built in stone and the establishment of religious houses such as Hartland Abbey (see Figure 2.16). The abbeys and their successor estates also drove the process of agricultural improvement - creating larger fields with straightened boundaries. They also introduced new land uses such as rabbit warrens along the coast, often fossilising more marginal land.
Figure 2.16: The Grade I listed Hartland Abbey
2.50 Today, little remains of churches from this period, except some Norman fonts and doorways, as much was rebuilt in the 14th and 15th centuries. It also marked the beginnings of commercial trade and industry, such as the cloth industry which spurred on the development of towns like South Molton. Overseas trade burgeoned from Barnstaple (the third largest town in Devon at the time) and estuary ports such as Bideford, where great ships were built to export goods such as cloth from the local mill towns and tin from Dartmoor.
2.51 When the Black Death struck in 1348, a sharp decline in the rural population led to the abandonment of many farmsteads and hamlets, and a period of economic recession ensued. In the 14th century, Devon began to recover relatively quickly from the losses of the plague - heralding a period of rebuilding and re-population of rural areas. Most of the Devon churches as they stand now date from the 14th and 15th century, stone bridges were constructed over the larger rivers and manor houses were built in the countryside, many on the wealth of lawyers that settled in the county.
The Late and Post-Medieval Period (16th to early 19th Centuries)
2.52 By the 17th century new enclosure acts were encouraging the enclosure of even the wettest and highest Culm ridges and areas of Exmoor, building on what was started before the Plague. In comparison with other English counties Devon still retained a large percentage of rough grazing and moorland. Enclosure Acts awarded during this period were also fewer than in many other parts of England (most coming in during the later 19th century), a key reason why Devon is celebrated today as a strongly medieval landscape.
2.53 The later medieval period saw the prosperity of farming blossom, sustaining the population of the thriving nearby towns and ports with meat, cider and grain, as well as feeding the rural population. Soil fertility was improved and yields increased through the addition of lime, seaweed and 'night-soil' to sweeten the soil and make it less acidic.
2.54 Following Acts of Parliament in the 18th and 19th centuries, remaining areas of downland, moorland and commons were enclosed into large fields with straight boundaries, as can be seen across parts of Welsford Moor in Hartland, and Pickwell Downs near Woolacombe. Braunton Marsh was also reclaimed from the sea as rich, fertile grazing land in the early 19th century. The Torrington Canal and parts of the Bude Canal were also developed at this time to transport in supplies such as sand, lime and fuel. They were also used as key export routes for the agricultural products produced from the land.
2.55 Most farms probably had their own orchard, with cider making first recorded in the 13th century. Woodlands were managed for firewood, tanning, charcoal and timber, with cattle being excluded by the stock-proof tall Devon banks. Distinct breeds of cattle, sheep, pigs and ponies were familiar, and the North Devon Red cattle (Ruby Reds) are still much favoured today.
2.56 Farm buildings became more specialised, with cider-making, dairying and water-mills to grind corn. The distinctive corn barn, with its threshing and winnowing doors, and linhays, the two-storey open-fronted cow sheds (see Figure 2.17), were typical of this period, and many survive today. Farm sizes became larger, with country estates flourishing along with the wealth of the country gentlemen. Designed landscapes of parks and plantations also developed during this time, including the Castle Hill Estate on the banks of the River Bray.
Figure 2.17: Traditional linhay in North Devon
2.57 The creation of 'Boroughs' and administrative areas to collect tithes, along with the increasing population and agricultural surpluses all contributed to the further growth of population centres, including South Molton, the prosperous boroughs of Ilfracombe and Combe Martin and the ports of Barnstaple and Bideford. The building industry, with all its auxiliary crafts and trades from quarrying to carpentry, is likely to have rivalled the cloth and fishing industries in terms of economic contribution during this renaissance period.
2.58 Silver and lead mining accelerated as an important industry at Combe Martin, worked at intervals up until 1875 from its earlier medieval origins. Today, the legacy of the tall smelting chimneys remains as landmarks on the hillside above the town. Lime was also worked from outcrops in North Devon and from the chert ridge of the Codden Hills, with small quarries and lime kilns remaining in the modern landscape. During this period, limestone and coal was also imported from South Wales to every convenient anchorage along the coast (e.g. Mouth Mill and Bucks Mills on the Clovelly coast).
2.59 Mining became an increasingly significant industry, as did the wool / cloth trade locally - taking advantage of the abundant water power. As well as silver and lead mining around Combe Martin, iron ores were worked from the downland river valleys (e.g. the Caen and Bradiford Water); and iron and copper from the southern slopes of Exmoor - continuing what the Romans started.
2.60 Along the coast, the threat of pirate raids during this time was very real. This is demonstrated at Blegberry in Hartland where the ancient farmstead is surrounded by rampart walls built as a defence against such attacks in 1606. The treacherous seas and coastlines of North Devon have themselves proved deadly to seagoing vessels for centuries, many a ship having run aground and perished on the jagged rocks of Morte Point and Hartland Point. Lighthouses were built at strategic locations, providing a much-needed warning to ships passing through the Bristol Channel. The Hartland lighthouse (see Figure 2.18) remains as a prominent local landmark, as does the 'Old Light', crowning the highest land of Lundy Island.
Figure 2.18: Hartland Point lighthouse
19th Century to the Second World War
2.61 The late 18th century witnessed a decline in the wool, cloth and mining industries, spurring an exodus of people leaving the countryside for the towns. The development of railways and the road system in the early 19th century accelerated the movement of people from the poorer farmlands to the larger settlements, particularly along the coast. The routes of Turnpike Roads developed during this period are still used today, with the many toll houses and stone milestones forming characterful landscape features. During this period the seaside towns were beginning to enjoy the growth of a new industry - tourism.
2.62 This trend of rural depopulation was further stimulated by an agricultural depression in the late 1870s, which saw arable crop prices fall, leading to much arable land being laid down to grass. In the Culm Measures areas, many improved fields were allowed to revert back to moorland.
2.63 The effect of the holiday industry on the North Devon and Torridge landscape started with the growth and changing form of towns, as well as the style of buildings, open spaces and sea fronts. The building of the Victorian rail network linked Great Torrington to Barnstaple (now the Tarka Trail) and Barnstaple to Ilfracombe, opening up the adjacent coastline to tourism (including Ilfracombe Harbour - see Figure 2.19). Later constructions linked Bideford to Appledore via Westward Ho!. The moneyed classes had already discovered the scenic and climatic amenities of the North Devon Coast during the previous century, but Westward Ho! and Ilfracombe were to grow significantly in late Victorian times as popular holiday resorts. Villages such as Combe Martin and Croyde stretched seaward along the base of sheltered combes, whilst other small coastal hamlets such as Woolacombe expanded along the sea front with Victorian villas and imposing hotels.
2.64 By the 1920s the holiday industry had become the Devon's largest and most lucrative industry. The 1931 census shows that nearly 10% of the adult population were employed in 'personal service' trades, compared with 7.5% in farming. Nevertheless, before the Second World War Devon was the biggest cattle county in England and Wales, and second only to Northumberland in terms of sheep numbers in the English counties (Hoskins, 1954).
Figure 2.19: Ilfracombe harbour
Post-War to the present
2.65 The two world wars had brought a degree of landscape change, whether it was the large-scale conversion of unimproved grassland to arable, or the construction of defensive sites such as pill-boxes at Braunton and Croyde, and structures relating to D-day landing practice undertaken by the allies at Baggy Point and Braunton Burrows. Two RAF airfields - Chivenor and Winkleigh - remain as major landscape features, as do radar stations still visible at Northam Burrows, Hartland Point and Wrafton. However, the post-war years witnessed much more dramatic and speedy change than possibly any other period in history.
2.66 The drive for agricultural intensification in the post-war decades, stimulated by production-related subsidies through the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) introduced in the1970s, has had a significant effect on the farmed landscape. Farm units have steadily grown in size, amalgamating smaller farms and leaving some buildings ripe for conversion or falling into disrepair. Intensification has led to the loss of hedgerows to accommodate larger farm machinery and create larger fields in many parts of the landscape, including on Saunton Down. Despite this loss and damage to remaining sections through annual mechanical cutting, hedgerows and hedge-banks still perform vital functions for stock control and shelter. Organisations like the Devon Hedge Group and CPRE have been established in recent years to educate farmers and the wider public about the importance and great diversity of Devon's hedges, seeking to encourage their future protection and re-instatement reflecting local styles and traditions of construction.
2.67 Other agricultural improvements, such as land drainage (leading to the loss of significant areas of Culm grassland), crop spraying, ploughing up of pastures and the loss of traditional orchards have also left their mark, reducing the biodiversity of pasture and arable land, increasing the vivid green of fields and reducing local distinctiveness. Along the coast, farmed fields push to the very edge of the cliffs, often providing an abrupt transition to the tracts of coastal scrub, heathland and maritime grasslands that remain.
2.68 The extensive grazing traditionally practiced on marginal land such as the coastal edge has also declined in recent years, leading to a reversion of the open coastal grassland and heathland habitats to scrub and bracken. This has contributed to the local extinction of the Large Blue butterfly from the AONB-designated coast. A decline in grazing on the valued Culm grasslands, in favour of more agriculturally productive land elsewhere, has also led to their succession to scrub and trees in places.
2.69 The introduction of agri-environment schemes in the early 1990s (Countryside Stewardship and Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESA) scheme) as well as the current Environmental Stewardship scheme have helped reinstate the links between agricultural management and the stewardship of the land. Where farmers have participated in these schemes, the support has helped stimulate a gradual reversal of some of the trends described in the previous paragraphs. The Environmental Stewardship scheme is continuing to help manage and enhance key wildlife habitats and landscape features through environmentally sensitive farming methods.
2.70 A similar story has been seen for woodland management, with recent decades witnessing a decline in markets for wood products (such as charcoal, bark for tanning, coppice for firewood, timber for furniture), leading to creeping neglect and a decline in woodland management skills such as coppicing. The loss of significant numbers of elm trees during the Dutch Elm Disease outbreak of the 1970s/80s also had a dramatic effect on parts of the landscape. Current outbreaks of pests and disease are also leading to the loss of trees and subsequent changes to landscape character. In particular, ash dieback could result in the loss of 75-95% of the UK's ash trees will be lost in the next 20 to 30 years. A range of newly available funding and delivery mechanisms for tree and woodland planning and creation are available or will shortly become available. This includes the England Woodland Creation Offer (EWCO) a grant scheme administered by the Forestry Commission that supports the creation of a range of woodland types and sizes, including natural colonisation, of small areas of land from 1 ha upwards. The Woodland Creation Planning Grant provides funding for production of UK Forestry Standard (UKFS) compliant woodland creation design plans, which can support applications to other funding sources for woodland creation, such as the Woodland Carbon Fund. Countryside Stewardship scheme funding is also available for the creation and maintenance of new woodland. The new Environmental Land Management Scheme (ELMs) will pay farmers for work that enhances the natural environment, including tree and hedge planting and management. These initiatives all aim to have a positive impact on woodland management and new woodland planting.
2.71 Conversion of semi-natural woodlands and other habitats in favour of timber plantations in the 20th century has also had a significant impact on the woodland character of the landscape. The Forestry Commission now takes a holistic approach to the management of their sites - seeking to enhance their biodiversity and landscape value (including softening 'hard' edges, restructuring with mixed and broadleaved species and restoring some areas to open habitats such as heathland and Culm grassland) whilst also exploring the opportunities the plantations offer for recreation and, of course, sustainable future timber production. The England Trees Action Plan 2021-2024 provides a framework which outlines how to design, manage and protect woodlands in a way which contributes to the delivery of multiple ecosystem services.
2.72 The most significant recent and ongoing trends affecting the landscape stem from development pressure, tourism and climate change (both its effects and mitigation measures). A steady population growth, the popularity of the area as a retirement destination and a general lack of affordable housing is fuelling a continuing demand for new housing and related services across the two districts. Development pressures on greenfield sites, particularly on the edges of settlements, are therefore becoming more and more significant. The recent national drive to incorporate Green Infrastructure into new development proposals seeks to ensure settlements are well integrated into their landscape setting, whilst providing additional benefits through the creation of new semi-natural habitats, recreational resources and carbon sinks.
2.73 Tourism-led development and the popularity of the area as a place to live has also steadily gathered pace over the last few decades. This has led to the location of holiday parks, caravan sites and car parks within prominent coastal locations, along with highly visible ridgeline development of retirement apartments and holiday accommodation at Westward Ho! (see Figure 2.20). The diversification of traditional farm enterprises to tap into the burgeoning tourism market includes the provision of activities such as horse riding and off-road vehicular tracks. This has helped supplement traditional farm incomes which have dropped significantly over the last decade. On the other side of the coin this trend has also led to incremental landscape change in some locations, eroding local distinctiveness and traditional land uses.
Figure 2.20: Tourism development at Westward Ho! © North Devon Coast AONB
2.74 The related impacts of development in the area include the modernisation of the road network to account for higher volumes of traffic - leading to unsympathetic line markings, signage, curbs and straightening. In addition, the requirements of modern living have led to the introduction of electricity pylons, overhead cables and radio masts into the rural landscape. The effect of these tall vertical structures on the skyline can affect the enjoyment of many rural views, including within the AONB.
2.75 The fabric of the districts' settlements has also been altered in recent decades - traditional buildings have been replaced and restored using mass-produced building materials and standardised building designs.
2.76 A decline in traditional building skills, the shortage and high price of local stone and the labour-intensive nature of the work has made modern building techniques preferable for many. A push for sustainable building design is also having an impact on the design and materials chosen for new developments.
2.77 Figure 2.21 shows the extent of dark night skies in 2015, showing the influence of development (particularly around Barnstaple, Bideford and Ilfracombe). Nevertheless, the map illustrates that there remains significant tracts of landscape largely unaffected by modern development and dark night skies with minimal light pollution. These qualities are particularly rare in 21st century England.
Figure 2.21: Dark night skies
Future forces for change
2.78 The drivers of future landscape change are inherently difficult to predict, as well as the nature of their impacts, intensity and inter-relationships. The key drivers for landscape change in the two districts (a mixture of emerging forces for change discussed as well as a continuation of current ones discussed in the previous section) are likely to include a combination of some or all of the following:
Climate change - mitigation (reducing the causes of climate change, including renewable energy generation) and adaptation (adapting to the effects of climate change both naturally and through planned interventions, seeking to minimise adverse effects).
Natural processes, including the effects of climate change - such as flooding, erosion and the changing patterns of pests and diseases, all of which are likely to become more extreme with climate change.
Technological advancement - advances in technology in all aspects of life from communication (e.g. increased numbers of people working from home following the Covid-19 pandemic) and energy production to industrial-scale food growing.
Economic and market trends - driven by booms / recessions, shifting economic power, globalisation / localisation. Brexit has impacted on the market value and ability to trade agricultural goods and the as yet unconfirmed design and payment structure of the emerging Environmental Land Management schemes bring further uncertainties to the sector.
Social and cultural trends - such as demographic change including migration and life expectancy, health and physical wellbeing, human needs and wants, and changing patterns of living which in combination are likely to lead to increased development.
Changing values - and increasing confidence in our ability to challenge undesired change.
Policy and regulatory responses - International, national, regional and local policy and regulatory responses to all of the above.
Climate change
2.79 The effects and our responses to climate change are fast becoming the most important driver for change in the 21st century. The UK Government has set out policies relating to climate change in the 25 Year Environment Plan [See reference ] and the Net Zero Strategy [See reference ]. In February 2019, Devon County Council agreed to declare a 'Climate Emergency'. Both district councils have also declared a climate emergency and signed 'The Devon Climate Declaration' which commits to collaborating to engage Devon's residents, businesses and visitors to develop and implement a plan to achieve a 45% reduction in carbon emissions by 2030 and by 100% by 2050 or at the earliest credible date supported by emerging research.
2.80 If current predictions are correct, rising sea levels will squeeze and put pressure on coastal habitats and species. Inland habitats and species will have to cope with new and changing seasonal temperatures and rainfall patterns. Pests and diseases are likely to take on a new prevalence (including phytopthera [See reference ], ash dieback and acute oak decline), as well as exotic, non-native plant and animal species - combining to change the distribution and composition of semi-natural habitats across the landscape.
Nature recovery
2.81 As part of the 25 Year Environment Plan, the UK Government has committed to creating the Nature Recovery Network, with the aim of enhancing valued semi-natural habitats, creating/restoring new semi-natural habitats outside of protected sites and improving linkages and connectivity between habitats. This will increase the resilience of the landscape to climate change, providing natural solutions to reduce carbon and manage flood risk, and sustaining vital ecosystems such as improved soil, clean water and clean air. The Devon Local Nature Partnership has begun to create a Nature Recovery Network Map which will provide an evidence base to guide opportunities/priorities for habitat restoration and creation. The new Environment Act will require 10% Biodiversity Net Gain as part of developments which will also contribute to habitat creation within the districts.
2.82 Actions arising from the North Devon UNESCO Biosphere Reserve Action Plan [See reference 6] aim to restore natural ecosystems. The plan includes five Action Plan areas covering the major land types found within the Biosphere: Coast, grassland and arable, towns and villages, trees, woodland and hedges, wetlands and waterbodies.
2.83 Woodland planting is a focus of the UK Government pledge for Net Zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. New tree and woodland planting bring a range of benefits for both nature and society, but need to be carefully planned. This is not least in recognition of the fact that other natural habitats that may be characteristic in a landscape are equally as important (or in some cases, more so) for ecosystem service delivery, including carbon sequestration. New tree and woodland planting should therefore take account of the receiving landscape - with a focus on 'right place, right tree, right way [See reference ]' principles. The Riverscapes Partnership (The Rivers Trust, National Trust, The Woodland Trust and Beaver Trust) "Woodlands for Water" project [See reference ] will plant hundreds of hectares of woodland within the Taw and Torridge Catchment Areas to help manage flood risk and improve water quality and wildlife habitats. Additionally, the Environment Act 2021 seeks to improve legal protection for existing trees and woodland. It requires local authorities to develop Local Nature Recovery Strategies and facilitates funding for trees and woodland across England. This will include both public and privately funded tree planting initiatives in order to meet the government's overall target to treble current woodland creation rates by May 2024.
2.84 Devon Wildlife Trust are leading the 'Saving Devon's Treescapes' project, in partnership with the Devon Ash Dieback Resilience Forum. Running until 2025, the project aims to protect, enhance, restore and replace Devon's iconic treescapes, aiming to plant 250,000 trees outside of woodlands across Devon as well as increasing knowledge and raising awareness of the cultural significance of ash trees in the region [See reference 9].
2.85 The Devon Hedge Group has produced a document [See reference 10] on the distinctive hedge types found throughout Devon, including an indicative distribution map, details on their contribution to landscape character, heritage, ecological characteristics, and their varying management requirements.
Agriculture
2.86 The character of the area's farmland is also likely to change in response to a changing climate. Changing weather patterns will affect growing seasons, yields, viable crops and stock. This is beginning to be seen as an opportunity for farmers to tap into new markets - such as bioenergy crop planting and English wine making. In addition, a push for more domestic food production had led to an industrialisation of farm production in parts of the districts' landscape, with large modern agricultural buildings and sheds appearing out of scale with their surroundings. An increase in related traffic (farm supplies, contractors etc), often transported in HGVs is also beginning to affect the character of the narrow, unmarked rural lanes. As well as an industrialisation of agriculture, legislation relating to the storage of farm waste (to minimise diffuse pollution) has resulted in the construction of large buildings and covered livestock standing areas, often out of context with the small-scale, medieval landscapes found across much of the landscape.
2.87 The full impacts of Brexit on the agricultural sector are yet to become apparent, although there has already been an effect on the market value and ability to trade certain agricultural produce. The emerging Environmental Land Management schemes (ELMS) will also impact the finances of farms, with a shifting focus towards paying for 'public goods' and ecosystem service delivery. The uncertainty around the future payment levels and practicalities of the new schemes is adding to the fragility of the agricultural economy at present.
Renewable energy
2.88 In the 21st century, the development of renewable and low carbon forms of energy has emerged as a major force for change in today's landscape. At a domestic and farm scale, the development of building-mounted or free-standing wind turbines and solar panels has introduced new structures into the landscape. Farmers have also developed ways to use their farm waste as an energy source through the installation of anaerobic digestion facilities.
Figure 2.22: Fullabrook Wind Farm
2.89 The landscape's strong coastal winds and presence of significant tracts of non-designated land (i.e. National Parks or AONBs) mean that there is ever-increasing pressure for large scale wind turbines both onshore and offshore. There are 13 wind turbine installations in Torridge district and three in North Devon. Fullabrook Down wind farm (Figure 2.22) is the largest installation in the two districts. The site was constructed in 2011 and contains twenty-two 110 metre wind turbines which produce enough electricity for around 30,000 homes. The turbines are highly visible from across the surrounding landscape, the AONB and Exmoor National Park. There were also proposals for an offshore windfarm ('Atlantic Array') in the Bristol Channel, just off the coast of Lundy, which exposed a lack of evidence on 'seascape' to guide such developments sensitively - leading to the commissioning of the Seascape Character Assessment for North Devon and Exmoor in 2015. Although the Atlantic Array scheme did not proceed, ongoing demand for alternative sources of renewable energy production to meet the UK's climate change targets means that future offshore wind and tidal energy schemes are likely to come forward with potential impacts on the character of the landscape, seascape and iconic coastal views. There are other proposals for offshore wind installations off the coast. In addition, the grid connections of offshore wind farms would also impact on the landscape and seascape.
2.90 Over the past decade, ground-mounted solar PV farms (see Figure 2.23) have become a frequent feature in the landscape of the districts and a notable force for change. These range from small 'farm-scale' installations to large commercial solar PV farms which cover multiple fields. In November 2021, permission for a 66 hectare solar PV farm was granted near Holsworthy in Torridge District. There is likely to be ongoing pressure for solar PV in the districts resulting from the drive towards Net Zero and the presence of south-facing slopes and higher than average levels of solar radiation which provide the technical potential for these installations.
Figure 2.23: Solar farm (1 ha) at Gortonhill Moors near South Molton
Tourism and development
2.91 Other key forces for change in the districts relate to a growing population and increasing levels of tourism (including domestic tourism). An increasing population is leading to continued pressure for development on fringes of existing settlements as well as the upgrading of roads including the dualling of A-roads and new traffic management infrastructure/junctions. Tourism (particularly domestic tourism following the Covid-19 pandemic) is resulting in demand for facilities including accommodation (including farm conversions and camping/caravan/glamping sites) and new access routes/car parking. The seasonal nature of tourism leads to issues including heavy traffic on rural roads and potential damage to sensitive habitats from increased footfall. These pressures tend to be focused in sensitive areas of the landscape including the AONB-designated coastline and the most accessible stretches of the South West Coast Path.
2.92 The individual Devon Character Area profiles include more locally-specific information on current and future forces for change affecting landscape character.
North Devon and Torridge Landscape Character Update (PDF) [8MB]
Chapter 3 - Method
Method
3.1 This chapter sets out the method for the LCA update
Best practice
3.2 This updated Landscape Character Assessment for North Devon and Torridge is in line with the approach promoted by Natural England through 'An Approach to Landscape Character Assessment' (2014) which embeds the principles of the European Landscape Convention (ELC) within it. While the Natural England approach document was published after the original North Devon and Torridge LCA (2011), the LCA was already in line with the principles advocated in terms of the approach taken in its preparation.
Landscape Character Assessment framework
3.3 This LCA forms part of a wider hierarchy of landscape character assessment information cascading down from the national, county to local (North Devon and Torridge) level. This hierarchy is illustrated on the next page in Figure 3.1.
National
3.4 At the national level, England is divided into 159 distinct National Character Areas (NCAs). Each is defined by a unique combination of landscape, biodiversity, geodiversity, history, and cultural and economic activity. There are descriptive profiles available for each NCA (published in 2014), setting out information on landscape character, changes happening in the landscape and an assessment of ecosystem services delivered. The NCAs covering the two authority areas are shown at Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.1: Landscape classification hierarchy
County
3.5 At a county level, Devon's landscape character assessment describes the variations in character between different areas and types of landscape in the county. In 2016, work was completed to divide Devon up into 68 Devon Character Areas (DCAs), each representing areas with a unique and distinct identity recognisable on a county scale. These are shown alongside the NCAs at Figure 3.3.
3.6 The DCAs are made up of a framework of Devon-wide Landscape Character Types (LCTs), each sharing similar characteristics. Some types of landscape occur throughout the county, for example, 'Sparsely settled farmed valley floors' while others may occur only once, for example, 'Upland moorland with tors' - which is only found in Dartmoor National Park.
3.7 Collectively, the Devon-wide LCA work provides an evidence base for local plans, articulating what people perceive as distinctive and special about all landscapes in Devon. It also set out strategies and guidelines for the protection, management and planning of the landscape.
3.8 Because the work to classify and describe the DCAs followed the publication of the original North Devon and Torridge LCA (which was based on LCTs only), this updated LCA has taken a renewed look at the spatial classification of both LCTs and DCAs across the two districts. In agreement with the Devon Landscape Policy Group, a shift in focus from presenting evaluative information (forces for change and guidance) away from the generic LCTs to the area-specific DCAs has also been made as a key feature of this update. It is hoped that this new approach will be applied across the rest of Devon as the original authority-scale LCAs are updated in the coming years.
Figure 3.2: National Character Areas
Figure 3.3: Devon Character Areas
Local (North Devon and Torridge Districts)
3.9 Also taking place after the original LCA in 2011, a Seascape Character Assessment for the North Devon and Exmoor coasts was produced for the National Trust, AONB and partners in 2015. This assessment covers the entire coastline of the two districts (including all of the AONB and Lundy) and its adjacent waters. The approach taken was fully compatible with the land-based assessment - using the existing LCT framework along the coast and identifying new Seascape Character Types (SCTs) for areas offshore. Some minor changes were made to a few of the coastal LCTs during the process of producing the Seascape Character Assessment, which have been taken into account for this update (see further below).
Approach taken to the LCA update
3.10 The process for undertaking the assessment involved four main stages, described below:
Stage 1: Desk study and classification
3.11 This stage involved the collation of a wide range of mapped information (see Appendix A) to 'sense-check' the landscape classification established in the original LCA and ensure any significant changes to landscape character are reflected in an updated classification.
Updated classification of Landscape Character Types
3.12 A total of 23 Landscape Character Types (LCTs) are identified for the two districts, as listed in Table 3-1 below; with 19 LCTs in North Devon and 16 in Torridge, with considerable cross-over of LCTs between the two authority areas. Although the larger settlements within the two districts are excluded from the assessment (in line with the Devon-wide approach), they are categorised as a specific LCT - Main Cities and Towns.
3.13 The LCT classification is shown in Figure 3.4 for North Devon and Figure 3.5 for Torridge. The maps include the Seascape Character Types which extend offshore, showing how the two classifications align.
Table 3.1: LCTs within North Devon and Torridge
LCT code | LCT name | North Devon | Torridge |
|---|---|---|---|
1B | Open coastal plateaux | No | Yes |
1D | Estate wooded ridges and hilltops | Yes | No |
1F | Farmed lowland moorland and Culm grassland | Yes | Yes |
2C | Steep open slopes | Yes | No |
2D | Moorland edge slopes | Yes | No |
3A | Upper farmed and wooded valley slopes | Yes | Yes |
3C | Sparsely settled farmed valley floors | Yes | Yes |
3D | Upland river valleys | Yes | No |
3G | River valley slopes and combes | Yes | Yes |
3H | Secluded valleys | Yes | Yes |
4A | Estuaries | Yes | Yes |
4B | Marine levels and coastal plains | Yes | No |
4C | Coastal slopes and combes with settlement | Yes | No |
4D | Coastal slopes and combes | No | Yes |
4E | Extensive inter-tidal sands | Yes | Yes |
4F | Dunes | Yes | Yes |
4H | Cliffs | Yes | Yes |
4I | Rocky foreshores | Yes | Yes |
5A | Inland elevated undulating land | Yes | Yes |
5B | Coastal undulating farmland | No | Yes |
5C | Downland | Yes | No |
5D | Estate wooded farmland | Yes | Yes |
6 | Offshore Islands | No | Yes |
7 | Main cities and towns | Yes | Yes |
3.14 Appendix B sets out the findings, recommendations and actions taken during the boundary review, which were subject to field verification under Stage 2. The majority of changes are relatively minor; largely 'tidying up' boundaries, reflecting areas of growth on urban edges and ensuring the LCT classification does indeed reflect current character. The most significant change from the 2011 classification is the addition of one new coastal LCT - 4I Rocky Foreshores - which was identified by the Seascape Character Assessment (2015).
Figure 3.4: Landscape Character Types (North Devon)
Figure 3.5: Landscape Character Types (Torridge)
3.15 A thorough review of cross-boundary landscapes was also undertaken, to ensure that character 'flows' across administrative areas. This primarily focused on the other Devon authorities utilising the Devon approach (West Devon and Mid Devon), as well as the LCAs available for Exmoor National Park (2018) and Cornwall (2007 - being updated by LUC at the time of writing). Users of this document are therefore encouraged to refer to the LCAs produced by the other local authorities for any locations close to or on administrative boundaries.
3.16 The classification of LCTs has been mapped at a scale of 1:25,000 which means that it is suitable for use at this scale. The scale of this classification will need to be taken into account whenever the assessment is used to ensure that the level of detail is compatible with the intended application. In reality landscape character does not change abruptly at the LCT boundaries. Boundaries therefore often represent transitions rather than marked changes in character visible on the ground.
Updated classification of Devon Character Areas
3.17 Appendix B also sets out the changes made to any DCA boundaries resulting from the updates made to the underlying LCT classification. Again, there were no significant changes made. Table 3-2 and Table 3.3 below shows the DCAs within the study area and which district they are located in.
North Devon
Table 3.2: DCAs within North Devon
DCA code | DCA name |
|---|---|
32 | High Culm Ridges* |
58 | Taw Torridge Estuary |
43 | North Devon Coastal Downs |
45 | North Devon High Coast |
44 | North Devon Downs |
27 | Exmoor Fringe |
14 | Codden Hill and Wooded Estates |
53 | South Molton Farmland* |
67 | Witheridge and Rackenford Moor* |
3.18 High Culm Ridges, South Molton Farmland, Witheridge and Rackenford Moor and Taw Valley are DCAs which extend into adjacent districts.
Torridge
Table 3.3: DCAs within Torridge
DCA code | DCA name |
|---|---|
32 | High Culm Ridges |
58 | Taw Torridge Estuary |
59 | Taw Valley |
38 | Lundy |
31 | Hartland Peninsula |
66 | Western Culm Plateau |
3 | Bideford Bay Coast |
63 | Torridge Valley |
65 | West Torridge Upland Farmland |
36 | High Torridge Culm Plateau |
64 | Upper Tamar Tributary Valleys |
3.19 High Culm Ridges, Taw Valley, West Torridge Upland Farmland, High Torridge Culm Plateau and Upper Tamar Tributary Valleys are DCAs which extend into adjacent districts.
3.20 Figures 3.6 and 3.7 show the DCA classification for North Devon and Torridge.
Stage 2: Field survey
3.21 The main field survey work undertaken to inform the updated LCA took place in July 2021, with follow-up visits to specifically check cross-boundary issues (particularly with West Devon) in October 2021.
3.22 The fieldwork exercise was used to:
Verify and fine-tune the spatial classification of LCTs and DCAs, including checking areas crossing into adjacent authorities;
check key characteristics of the LCTs and note local variations in character across the DCAs;
gather information on perceptual qualities and views (including visual relationships with adjacent areas);
identify valued attributes/special qualities; and
assess landscape condition and forces for change within the DCAs.
- Following fieldwork, the spatial classification and descriptive profiles were updated, prior to consultation under the next stage.
Figure 3.6: DCAs (North Devon)
Figure 3.7: DCAs (Torridge)
Stage 3: Consultation
3.24 A consultation workshops was held in November 2022 to gather local views and knowledge about the North Devon and Torridge landscape. Stakeholders included statutory bodies including the Environment Agency, AONB representatives and landowners such as the National Trust.
3.25 The workshop consisted of two main exercises.
Exercise 1: What do you think is important about the different Devon Character Areas/Landscape Character Types?
Exercise 2: What issues are affecting the landscape?
3.26 A list of consultees present at the consultation events can be found in Appendix C.
Stage 4: Reporting
3.27 The LCT profiles are structured as follows:
Context map and representative photograph
Summary description
Key characteristics
Valued landscape attributes
The full profiles can be viewed on the North Devon and Torridge websites.
3.28 The DCA profiles are structured as follows:
Context maps showing extent of the DCA and component LCTs.
Representative photographs
Contextual description of the location of the DCA
Summary character description proving an overview of the landscape.
List of distinctive landscape characteristics
A list of special qualities and features of the landscape.
Forces for change and their landscape implications - both past and current and forces for change which are likely to have a future impact.
Landscape guidelines under the headings of protect, manage and plan.
The full profiles can be viewed on the North Devon and Torridge websites.
North Devon and Torridge Landscape Character Update (PDF) [8MB]
Appendix A
Data list
The following lists the main datasets collated and analysed in Geographic Information System (GIS) software as a key part of the evidence base for this study.
Basemaps
Ordnance Survey 25K
Ordnance Survey 50K
Local authority boundaries
Landscape
Landscape and seascape character types / areas for North Devon & Torridge and adjacent authorities
UNESCO Biosphere Reserves
Extensive Urban Survey (EUS)
Historic Landscape Characterisation (HLC)
Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty
National Parks
National Character Areas
Heritage coast
Light Pollution (Night Blight)
Tranquillity
Geology
Locally Important Geological Sites (LIGS)
Regionally Important Geological Sites (RIGS)
British Geological Survey Geology 50k
British Geological Survey Geology 625k
Historic Environment
Conservation areas
Listed buildings
Parks and gardens
Scheduled monuments
Registered battlefields
Protected wreck sites
Ecological Environment
Sites of Importance for Nature Conservation (SINCs)
Priority Habitat Inventory (PHI)
Local Wildlife Sites (LWS)
Local Nature Reserves (LNR)
National Nature Reserves (NNR)
Ramsar
Special Areas of Conservation (SAC)
Marine Special Areas of Conservation
Special Protection Areas (SPA)
Marine Special Protection Area
Recommended Marine Conservation Zone
Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI)
Nature Improvement Areas (NIA)
RSPB reserves
UK Important Bird Areas (IBAs)
Ancient Woodland Inventory (AWI)
National Forest Inventory (NFI)
Access and Recreation
National Trails
National and Regional Cycle Routes
Country Parks
Ordnance Survey Open Greenspace
CRoW Act Open Access Land / Open Country
CRoW Act Registered Common Land
National Trust Land - Always Open / Limited Access
Appendix B
LCA and DCA Classification and Boundary Review
This appendix contains a table detailing changes made to the LCTs and DCAs as part of the classification review
LCT classification review
Current LCT (** indicates where LCT is included in Seascape Character Assessment, 2015) | Summary of any changes since original study Yellow highlights are issues discussed with W Devon - see map extracts at end of document Green highlights - further observations from 2021 desk review | Recommendation | LUC action (GIS) |
|---|---|---|---|
1B: Open Coastal Plateaux | N/A | ||
1D: Estate Wooded Ridges and Hilltops | N/A | ||
1F: Farmed Lowland Moorland and Culm Grassland |
|
|
|
2C: Steep Open Slopes | N/A | ||
2D: Moorland Edge Slopes |
|
|
|
3A: Upper Farmed and Wooded Valley Slopes | Small area of 1F to the east of South Molton (south of the A361) to be re-classified as 3A due to absence of Culm grassland habitats here | Recommendation confirmed through fieldwork (Oct 21) | NDT shapefile updated |
3C: Sparsely Settled Farmed Valley Floors | Reclassification of area of 5A along boundary between Torridge/West Devon to 3C at Fernhill (cross-boundary review, 2012) | Agree - to ensure any written content accounts for this change | |
3D: Upland River Valleys |
|
| NDT shapefile updated for both these issues |
3E: Lowland Plains | New 3E: Lowland Plains added around Marsland Moor, Torridge as result of cross-boundary review 2012 | This area will be re-classified back to 5D and the nuances relating to clay extraction/ restoration will be brought out in the relevant DCA description (currently 'West Torridge Upland Farmland'). Also discussed and agreed with West Devon 18.5.21. | NDT shapefile updated |
3G: River Valley Slopes and Combes |
|
|
|
3H: Secluded Valleys |
|
| NDT shapefile updated for all 4 issues |
4A: Estuaries** | Extend to include estuary mouth (classified as 4E) and other minor boundary amends made as part of the QA for Seascape Assessment | Use Seascape Character Assessment data for this LCT | |
4B: Marine Levels & Coastal Plains** | Some very minor boundary amends made as part of the QA for Seascape Assessment | Use Seascape Character Assessment data for this LCT | |
4C: Coastal Slopes and Combes with Settlement** | May potentially be some very minor boundary amends made as part of the QA for Seascape Assessment | Use Seascape Character Assessment data for this LCT (for parts in Seascape Study Area) | |
4D: Coastal Slopes and Combes | N/A | ||
4E: Extensive Inter-Tidal Sands** | Exclude estuary mouth (Seascape) | Use Seascape Character Assessment data for this LCT | |
4F: Dunes** | May potentially be some very minor boundary amends made as part of the QA for Seascape Assessment | Use Seascape Character Assessment data for this LCT | |
4H: Cliffs** |
| Use Seascape Character Assessment data for this LCT | |
4I: Rocky Foreshores ** (from SCA, 2015) | 4I: Rocky Foreshores added along many parts of the coastline between high and low water (Seascape) | Use Seascape Character Assessment data for this LCT - override any previous classifications within these locations | |
5A: Inland Elevated Undulating Land |
|
|
|
5B: Coastal Undulating Farmland** | Extension to include former areas of 4H: Cliffs in Torridge (Portledge and around Babbacombe) (Seascape) | Use Seascape Character Assessment data for this LCT (for parts in Seascape Study Area) | |
5C: Downland** |
|
| |
5D: Estate Wooded Farmland | N/A | ||
6: Offshore Islands** | N/A | ||
7: Main cities and towns | Using latest OS 1:25K base indicates some minor expansion of settlements in discrete locations since the original study. |
| NDT shapefile updated |
DCA boundary review
DCA number/name | Recommendation | GIS shapefile updated? |
|---|---|---|
64: Upper Tamar Tributary Valleys | None | N/A |
36: High Torridge Culm Plateau | None | N/A |
66: Western Culm Plateau | None | N/A |
65: West Torridge Upland Farmland | None | N/A |
63: Torridge Valley | Extend to cover full extent of tributary 3H valleys - some of which are cut off in their upper courses and fall in the adjacent DCA 32 | Yes |
32: High Culm Ridges | See DCAs 63 and 59 | N/A |
59: Taw Valley | Extend to cover full extent of tributary 3H valleys - two of which are cut off in their upper courses and fall in the adjacent DCA 67 (near Romansleigh); and further incidences where upper valleys fall into DCA 32 but should be in this DCA | Yes |
67: Witheridge and Rackenford Moor | None (apart from above) |
|
53: South Molton Farmland | 1) Remove small part of 3D (to reassign to DCA 27), by South Holdridge) 2) Remove area of 2D south of North Molton (reassign to DCA 27) | 1) Yes 2) Yes |
14: Codden Hill and Wooded Estates | None | N/A |
31: Hartland Peninsula | DCA coastal edge needs to align with the low water mark - as per Seascape Character Assessment (LCT 4I - Rocky Foreshores should be within DCA) | Yes |
3: Bideford Bay Coast | DCA coastal edge needs to align with the low water mark - as per Seascape Character Assessment (LCT 4I - Rocky Foreshores should be within DCA) | Yes |
58: Taw-Torridge Estuary | Extend to include northern tip of the built up area of Barnstaple (re-classified as LCT 7). | Yes |
43: North Devon Coastal Downs | DCA coastal edge needs to align with the low water mark - as per Seascape Character Assessment (LCT 4I - Rocky Foreshores should be within DCA) | Yes |
45: North Devon High Coast | DCA coastal edge needs to align with the low water mark - as per Seascape Character Assessment (LCT 4I - Rocky Foreshores should be within DCA) | Yes |
44: North Devon Downs | Shift boundary west beyond Bratton Fleming (re-classify as part of DCA 27) to reflect changes in LCT classification - reflecting continuation of Exmoor fringe character | Yes |
27: Exmoor Fringe | 1) Include small part of 3D (previously in DCA 53), by South Holdridge 2) Snap northern edge to the National Park boundary (including component LCTs - some are extending north into the NP) 3) 2 small areas of 2D on NP boundary near Great Heasley and Brinsworthy need assigning to the DCA (currently not assigned to any DCA) 4) Small area of 3D on the NP boundary near Bentwichen needs including in the DCA (currently not assigned to any DCA) 5) Check along NP boundary to ensure no further issues - overlaps/gaps 6) Shift boundary west beyond Bratton Fleming to reflect changes in LCT classification - reflecting continuation of Exmoor fringe character 7) Full extent of 2D south of North Molton included in DCA (previously in DCA 53) | 1) Yes 2) Yes 3) Yes 4) Yes 5) Yes 6) Yes 7) Yes |
Appendix C
Stakeholder workshop attendees
A list of people who attended the stakeholder workshop is as follows:
Melanie Croll - Devon County Council
Sarah Jennings - Devon County Council
Martin Caddy - Devon County Council
Simon Houghton - Devon County Council
Ian Rowland - Torridge District Council
Donna Sibley - Torridge District Council
Mark Saunders - North Devon District Council
Mark Alcock - North Devon District Council
Steve Emery - North Devon District Council
Collette Hall - North Devon District Council
Kris Evely - Torridge District Council
Laura Davies - Torridge District Council
Ryan Steppel - Torridge District Council
Angelo Massos - Torridge District Council
Tristan Otten - Torridge District Council
Sarah Chappell - Torridge District Council
Councillor Netti Pearson - NDC
Amanda Urmson - West Devon
Dave Edgecombe - NDAONB
Andy Bell - Biosphere Service
Pete Leaver - NDAONB
Paul Collom - National Trust
Paul South - National Trust
Dr Peter Howard - Landscape Research Group
Rosie Walker - The Woodland Trust
Edward Humber - National Farmers Union (NFU) South West Region
Brett Grosvenor - Envionrment Agency
Pamela Morris - Envionrment Agency
Christopher Lucas - SWCP
References
Consultation on the England tree strategy can viewed here: https://consult.defra.gov.uk/forestry/england-tree-strategy/
These are not 'downs' in the classic sense (i.e. the same as the chalk downs found in other parts of southern England); but locally, this is what the elevated area to the west of Exmoor and north of the Taw-Torridge Estuary is referred to.
https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/25-year-environment-plan
https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/net-zero-strategy
https://theriverstrust.org/our-work/our-projects/woodlands-for-water
https://www.devonwildlifetrust.org/what-we-do/our-projects/saving-devons-treescapes
https://devonhedges.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Interactive-Distinctive-Hedge-Map-Devon.pdf
Report produced by LUC
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